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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~As a matter of FACT!
A fact is a pragmatic truth, a statement that can, at least in theory, be checked and either confirmed or denied.
Facts are often contrasted with opinions and beliefs, statements which are held to be true, but are not amenable to pragmatic confirmation or denial.[1][2][3]
Etymology and usage
The word fact derives from the Latin Factum, and was first used in English with the same meaning: "a thing done or performed", a use that is now obsolete.[4]
The common usage of, "something that has really occurred or is the case", dates from the middle of the sixteenth century.[5]
Fact is sometimes used as synonymous with truth or reality, as distinguishable from conclusions or opinions. This use is found in such phrases Matter of fact,[6] and "... not history, nor fact, but imagination."
Fact also indicates a matter under discussion deemed to be true or correct, such as to emphasize a point or prove a disputed issue; (e.g., "... the fact of the matter is ...").[7][8]
Alternatively, fact may also indicate an allegation or stipulation of something that may or may not be a "true fact",[9] (e.g., "the author's facts are not trustworthy"). This alternate usage, although contested by some, has a long history in standard English.[10]
Fact may also indicate findings derived through a process of evaluation, including review of testimony, direct observation, or otherwise; as distinguishable from matters of inference or speculation.[11] This use is reflected in the terms "fact-find" and "fact-finder" (e.g., "set up a fact-finding commission").[12]
Facts may be checked by reason, experiment, personal experience, or may be argued from authority. Roger Bacon wrote "If in other sciences we should arrive at certainty without doubt and truth without error, it behooves us to place the foundations of knowledge in mathematics."[13]
Fact in philosophy
In philosophy, the concept fact is considered in epistemology and ontology. Questions of ~~~~~~ivity and truth are closely associated with questions of fact. A "fact" can be defined as something which is the case, that is, the state of affairs[14] reported by a true proposition.[15][16]
Facts may be understood as that which makes a true sentence true. For example, the statement "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system" is made true by the fact Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system.
Facts may also be understood as those things to which a true sentence refers. The statement "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system" is about the fact Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system.[17]
Misunderstanding of the difference between fact and theory sometimes leads to fallacy in rhetoric, in which one person will say his or her claim is factual whereas the opponent's claim is just theory. Such statements indicate confusion as to the meanings of both words, suggesting the speaker believes that fact means "truth," and theory means "speculation."
Correspondence and the slingshot argument
Some versions of the correspondence theory of truth hold that what makes a sentence true is that it corresponds to a fact.[18] This theory presupposes the existence of an ~~~~~~ive world.
The Slingshot argument claims to show that all true statements stand for the same thing - the truth value true. If this argument holds, and facts are taken to be what true statements stand for, then we reach the counter-intuitive conclusion that there is only one fact - "the truth".[19]
Compound facts
Any non-trivial true statement about reality is necessarily an abstraction composed of a complex of ~~~~~~s and properties or relations.[20] For example, the fact described by the true statement "Paris is the capital city of France" implies that there is such a place as Paris, there is such a place as France, there are such things as capital cities, as well as that France has a government, that the government of France has the power to define its capital city, and that the French government has chosen Paris to be the capital, that there is such a thing as a "place" or a "government", etc.. The verifiable accuracy of all of these assertions, if facts themselves, may coincide to create the fact that Paris is the capital of France.
Difficulties arise, however, in attempting to identify the constituent parts of negative, modal, disjunctive, or moral facts.[21]
The fact-value distinction
Moral philosophers since David Hume have debated whether values are ~~~~~~ive, and thus factual. In 'A Treatise of Human Nature' Hume pointed out there is no obvious way for a series of statements about what ought to be the case to be derived from a series of statements of what is the case. Those who insist there is a logical gulf between facts and values, such that it is fallacious to attempt to derive values from facts, include G. E. Moore, who called attempting to do so the Naturalistic fallacy.
The factual-counterfactual distinction
counterfactual conditional
Factuality — what has occurred — can also be contrasted with counterfactuality — what might have occurred, but did not.
A counterfactual conditional or subjunctive conditional is a conditional (or "if-then") statement indicating what would be the case if events had been other than they actually are. For example, "If Alexander had lived, his empire would have been greater than Rome". This is to be contrasted with an indicative conditional, which indicates what is (in fact) the case if its antecedent is (in fact) true — for example, "if you drink this, it will make you well".
Such sentences are important to Modal logic, especially since the development of Possible world semantics.
Fact in science
Scientific method and philosophy of science
Just as in philosophy, the scientific concept of fact is central to fundamental questions regarding the nature, methods, scope and validity of scientific reasoning.
In the most basic sense, a scientific fact is an ~~~~~~ive and verifiable observation; in contrast with a hypothesis or theory, which is intended to explain or interpret facts.[22] Thus, for example, it is a fact that ~~~~~~s of smaller mass are attracted to ~~~~~~s of greater mass, and the theory of gravitation explains why this is so. See also Evolution as theory and fact.
Various scholars have offered significant refinements to this basic formulation, some of which are detailed below.
Also, rigorous scientific use of the term "fact" is careful to distinguish: 1) states of affairs in the external world; from 2) assertions of fact that may be considered relevant in scientific analysis. The term is used in both senses in the philosophy of science.[23]
Scholarly inquiry regarding scientific fact
Scholars and clinical researchers in both the social and natural sciences have forwarded numerous questions and theories in clarifying the fundamental nature of scientific fact.[24] Some pertinent issues raised by this inquiry include:
* the process by which "established fact" becomes recognized and accepted as such;[25]
* whether and to what extent "fact" and "theoretic explanation" can be considered truly independent and separable from one another;[26][27]
* to what extent are "facts" influenced by the mere act of observation;[27] and
* to what extent are factual conclusions influenced by history and consensus, rather than a strictly systematic methodology.[28]
Consistent with the theory of confirmation holism, some scholars assert "fact" to be necessarily "theory-laden" to some degree. Thomas Kuhn and others pointed out that knowing what facts to measure, and how to measure them, requires the use of some other theory (e.g., age of fossils is based on radiocarbon dating which is justified by reasoning that radioactive decay follows a Poisson process rather than a Bernoulli process). Similarly, Percy Williams Bridgman is credited with the methodological position known as operationalism, which asserts that all observations are not only influenced, but necessarily defined by the means and assumptions used to measure them.
Fact and the scientific method
Apart from the fundamental inquiry in to the nature of scientific fact, there remain the practical and social considerations of how fact is investigated, established, and substantiated through the proper application of the scientific method.[29] Scientific facts are generally believed to be independent of the observer: no matter who performs a scientific experiment, all observers will agree on the outcome.[30] In addition to these considerations, there are the social and institutional measures, such as peer review and accreditation, that are intended to promote factual accuracy (among other interests) in scientific study.[31]..
A fact is a pragmatic truth, a statement that can, at least in theory, be checked and either confirmed or denied.Facts are often contrasted with opinions and beliefs, statements which are held to be true, but are not amenable to pragmatic confirmation or denial.[1][2][3]
Etymology and usage
The word fact derives from the Latin Factum, and was first used in English with the same meaning: "a thing done or performed", a use that is now obsolete.[4]
The common usage of, "something that has really occurred or is the case", dates from the middle of the sixteenth century.[5]
Fact is sometimes used as synonymous with truth or reality, as distinguishable from conclusions or opinions. This use is found in such phrases Matter of fact,[6] and "... not history, nor fact, but imagination."
Fact also indicates a matter under discussion deemed to be true or correct, such as to emphasize a point or prove a disputed issue; (e.g., "... the fact of the matter is ...").[7][8]
Alternatively, fact may also indicate an allegation or stipulation of something that may or may not be a "true fact",[9] (e.g., "the author's facts are not trustworthy"). This alternate usage, although contested by some, has a long history in standard English.[10]
Fact may also indicate findings derived through a process of evaluation, including review of testimony, direct observation, or otherwise; as distinguishable from matters of inference or speculation.[11] This use is reflected in the terms "fact-find" and "fact-finder" (e.g., "set up a fact-finding commission").[12]
Facts may be checked by reason, experiment, personal experience, or may be argued from authority. Roger Bacon wrote "If in other sciences we should arrive at certainty without doubt and truth without error, it behooves us to place the foundations of knowledge in mathematics."[13]
Fact in philosophy
In philosophy, the concept fact is considered in epistemology and ontology. Questions of ~~~~~~ivity and truth are closely associated with questions of fact. A "fact" can be defined as something which is the case, that is, the state of affairs[14] reported by a true proposition.[15][16]
Facts may be understood as that which makes a true sentence true. For example, the statement "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system" is made true by the fact Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system.
Facts may also be understood as those things to which a true sentence refers. The statement "Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system" is about the fact Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system.[17]
Misunderstanding of the difference between fact and theory sometimes leads to fallacy in rhetoric, in which one person will say his or her claim is factual whereas the opponent's claim is just theory. Such statements indicate confusion as to the meanings of both words, suggesting the speaker believes that fact means "truth," and theory means "speculation."
Correspondence and the slingshot argument
Some versions of the correspondence theory of truth hold that what makes a sentence true is that it corresponds to a fact.[18] This theory presupposes the existence of an ~~~~~~ive world.
The Slingshot argument claims to show that all true statements stand for the same thing - the truth value true. If this argument holds, and facts are taken to be what true statements stand for, then we reach the counter-intuitive conclusion that there is only one fact - "the truth".[19]
Compound facts
Any non-trivial true statement about reality is necessarily an abstraction composed of a complex of ~~~~~~s and properties or relations.[20] For example, the fact described by the true statement "Paris is the capital city of France" implies that there is such a place as Paris, there is such a place as France, there are such things as capital cities, as well as that France has a government, that the government of France has the power to define its capital city, and that the French government has chosen Paris to be the capital, that there is such a thing as a "place" or a "government", etc.. The verifiable accuracy of all of these assertions, if facts themselves, may coincide to create the fact that Paris is the capital of France.
Difficulties arise, however, in attempting to identify the constituent parts of negative, modal, disjunctive, or moral facts.[21]
The fact-value distinction
Moral philosophers since David Hume have debated whether values are ~~~~~~ive, and thus factual. In 'A Treatise of Human Nature' Hume pointed out there is no obvious way for a series of statements about what ought to be the case to be derived from a series of statements of what is the case. Those who insist there is a logical gulf between facts and values, such that it is fallacious to attempt to derive values from facts, include G. E. Moore, who called attempting to do so the Naturalistic fallacy.
The factual-counterfactual distinction
counterfactual conditional
Factuality — what has occurred — can also be contrasted with counterfactuality — what might have occurred, but did not.
A counterfactual conditional or subjunctive conditional is a conditional (or "if-then") statement indicating what would be the case if events had been other than they actually are. For example, "If Alexander had lived, his empire would have been greater than Rome". This is to be contrasted with an indicative conditional, which indicates what is (in fact) the case if its antecedent is (in fact) true — for example, "if you drink this, it will make you well".
Such sentences are important to Modal logic, especially since the development of Possible world semantics.
Fact in science
Scientific method and philosophy of science
Just as in philosophy, the scientific concept of fact is central to fundamental questions regarding the nature, methods, scope and validity of scientific reasoning.
In the most basic sense, a scientific fact is an ~~~~~~ive and verifiable observation; in contrast with a hypothesis or theory, which is intended to explain or interpret facts.[22] Thus, for example, it is a fact that ~~~~~~s of smaller mass are attracted to ~~~~~~s of greater mass, and the theory of gravitation explains why this is so. See also Evolution as theory and fact.
Various scholars have offered significant refinements to this basic formulation, some of which are detailed below.
Also, rigorous scientific use of the term "fact" is careful to distinguish: 1) states of affairs in the external world; from 2) assertions of fact that may be considered relevant in scientific analysis. The term is used in both senses in the philosophy of science.[23]
Scholarly inquiry regarding scientific fact
Scholars and clinical researchers in both the social and natural sciences have forwarded numerous questions and theories in clarifying the fundamental nature of scientific fact.[24] Some pertinent issues raised by this inquiry include:
* the process by which "established fact" becomes recognized and accepted as such;[25]
* whether and to what extent "fact" and "theoretic explanation" can be considered truly independent and separable from one another;[26][27]
* to what extent are "facts" influenced by the mere act of observation;[27] and
* to what extent are factual conclusions influenced by history and consensus, rather than a strictly systematic methodology.[28]
Consistent with the theory of confirmation holism, some scholars assert "fact" to be necessarily "theory-laden" to some degree. Thomas Kuhn and others pointed out that knowing what facts to measure, and how to measure them, requires the use of some other theory (e.g., age of fossils is based on radiocarbon dating which is justified by reasoning that radioactive decay follows a Poisson process rather than a Bernoulli process). Similarly, Percy Williams Bridgman is credited with the methodological position known as operationalism, which asserts that all observations are not only influenced, but necessarily defined by the means and assumptions used to measure them.
Fact and the scientific method
Apart from the fundamental inquiry in to the nature of scientific fact, there remain the practical and social considerations of how fact is investigated, established, and substantiated through the proper application of the scientific method.[29] Scientific facts are generally believed to be independent of the observer: no matter who performs a scientific experiment, all observers will agree on the outcome.[30] In addition to these considerations, there are the social and institutional measures, such as peer review and accreditation, that are intended to promote factual accuracy (among other interests) in scientific study.[31]..
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