Los pegostes de Cronos

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Re: Palabras encadenadas en ingles.

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What do you want find about the chemical elements?

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Explore key information about the chemical elements through this periodic table Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period
1 1
H 2
He
2 3
Li 4
Be 5
B 6
C 7
N 8
O 9
F 10
Ne
3 11
Na 12
Mg 13
Al 14
Si 15
P 16
S 17
Cl 18
Ar
4 19
K 20
Ca 21
Sc 22
Ti 23
V 24
Cr 25
Mn 26
Fe 27
Co 28
Ni 29
Cu 30
Zn 31
Ga 32
Ge 33
As 34
Se 35
Br 36
Kr
5 37
Rb 38
Sr 39
Y 40
Zr 41
Nb 42
Mo 43
Tc 44
Ru 45
Rh 46
Pd 47
Ag 48
Cd 49
In 50
Sn 51
Sb 52
Te 53
I 54
Xe
6 55
Cs 56
Ba * 71
Lu 72
Hf 73
Ta 74
W 75
Re 76
Os 77
Ir 78
Pt 79
Au 80
Hg 81
Tl 82
Pb 83
Bi 84
Po 85
At 86
Rn
7 87
Fr 88
Ra ** 103
Lr 104
Rf 105
Db 106
Sg 107
Bh 108
Hs 109
Mt 110
Ds 111
Rg 112
Cp 113
Uut 114
Uuq 115
Uup 116
Uuh 117
Uus 118
Uuo

*Lanthanoids * 57
La 58
Ce 59
Pr 60
Nd 61
Pm 62
Sm 63
Eu 64
Gd 65
Tb 66
Dy 67
Ho 68
Er 69
Tm 70
Yb
**Actinoids ** 89
Ac 90
Th 91
Pa 92
U 93
Np 94
Pu 95
Am 96
Cm 97
Bk 98
Cf 99
Es 100
Fm 101
Md 102
No
Element 112 shall be named copernicium
Proposed name honours astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus

In honour of scientist and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), the discovering team around Professor Sigurd Hofmann suggested the name copernicium with the element symbol Cp for the new element 112, discovered at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung (Center for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt. It was Copernicus who discovered that the Earth orbits the Sun, thus paving the way for our modern view of the world. Thirteen years ago, element 112 was discovered by an international team of scientists at the GSI accelerator facility. A few weeks ago, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, officially confirmed their discovery. In around six months, IUPAC will officially endorse the new element's name. This period is set to allow the scientific community to discuss the suggested name copernicium before the IUPAC naming.

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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~

Petrobras (BM&F BovespaETR3/PETR4, NYSE: PBR / PBRA, Latibex:XPBR / XPBRA, Merval APBR), short for Petróleo Brasileiro S.A., is a semi-public[4] Brazilian multinational energy company headquartered in Rio de Janeiro. It is the largest company in Latin America by market capitalization and revenue, and the largest company headquartered in the Southern Hemisphere.[5][6][7] The company was founded in 1953, mainly due to the efforts of Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas. While the company ceased to be Brazil's legal monopolist in the oil industry in 1997, it remains a significant oil producer, with output of more than 2 million barrels of oil equivalent per day, as well as a major distributor of oil products.

The company also owns oil refineries and oil tankers. Petrobras is a world leader in development of advanced technology from deep-water and ultra-deep water oil production.

* 1 Overview
Petrobras controls significant oil and energy assets in 18 countries in Africa, North America, South America, Europe and Asia. These holdings as well as properties in Brazil give it total assets of $133.5 billion.

Petrobras is Latin America's largest company, thanks to 2008 sales of $118.3 billion, according to a ranking from Latin Business Chronicle over Latin America's Top 500 Companies.

The Brazilian government owns 55.7% of Petrobras' common shares with voting rights,[8]. The privately held shares are traded on BM&F Bovespa, where they are part of the Ibovespa index.

Petrobras began the processing of oil shale in 1953 by developing Petrosix technology for extracting oil from oil shale. The pilot plant started in 1982 and the commercial production started in 1992. At present, the company operates two retorts, the largest of which processes 260 tonnes/hour of oil shale.

Petrobras operated the world's largest oil platform - the Petrobras 36 Oil Platform - until an explosion on 15 March 2001 led to its sinking on 20 March 2001. In 2007, Petrobras inaugurated the Petrobras 52 Oil Platform, replacing the 36. The 52 is the biggest Brazilian oil platform and third in the world[9].

Petrobras is also recognized as the largest sponsor of arts, culture, and environmental protection in Brazil. Among the environmental initiatives, Petrobras is the main supporter of whale conservation and research through the Brazilian Right Whale Project [10] and the Instituto Baleia Jubarte (Brazilian Humpback Whale Institute).[11] Petrobras has been a sponsor of the Williams Formula-1 team. The company employs the H-Bio process to produce biodiesel.[12]

According to Fortune 500 Petrobras is the 63rd largest company in the world.[13]

Petrobras was created in 1953 during the government of Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, with popular support under the motto "The Petroleum is Ours!". The company's creation provoked the wrath of Brazil's elite, which reacted fervently against the institution and Vargas himself.

Petrobras commenced its activities with the collection it inherited from the old National Oil Council (Conselho Nacional do Petróleo, CNP), which, however, preserved its inspection function for the sector.

The oil exploration and production operations, as well as the remaining activities connected to the oil, natural gas, and derivative sector, except for wholesale distribution and retail via service stations, were a monopoly Petrobras held from 1954 to 1997. During this period, Petrobras became the leader in derivative marketing in Brazil, and, thanks to the company’s performance, it was awarded the Offshore Technology Conference (OTC) in 1992, one which it was granted again in 2001.[14]

After 40 years of exploration, production, refining and transportation of Brazilian’s oil, Petrobras started to dispute with other foreign and nationals companies in 1997. Since that, were created the Petroleum’s National Agency (Agência Nacional do Petróleo, ANP), responsible for the regulation, supervision and sector activities hiring, and the National Council of Energy Policies, a public agency responsible for the development of energies’ public policies.

In 2003, commemorating its 50 years, Petrobras doubled the oil and natural gas daily production, surpassing the mark of 2 million barrels.

On 21 April 2006, Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva started the P-50 oil platform production, in the Albacora East Field, at Campos Basin, which enabled Brazil to achieve self-sufficiency in oil[15].

Many attempts were made to privatize the company, especially under the country's dictatorship from 1964 to 1985.

Chronology

* 1953: The company is created by president Getúlio Vargas.
* 1954-1961: The company faced opposition by the government.
* 1961: A report released by the government reveals pessimistic news about oil prospects in the country's terrains.
* 1973: The company's short period of growth was met by the first oil crisis. The crisis affected the country as a whole, as the "Brazilian miracle", fast growth in the national economy, came to a halt. The company itself almost faced bankruptcy.
* 1974: Petrobras discovered a huge oil field in Bacia de Campos, which oil reserves raise the company's finances, "resurrecting" its operations nationwide.
* 1975: The company signed "risk contracts" of partnership with private oil companies to intensify the search for new oil fields and to consolidate its influences in the country.
* 1979: Petrobras was affected by second oil crisis, but the effect was not as strong as it had been in the crisis of 1973.

* 1997: The government approved Law N. 9.478, essentially breaking the company's monopoly in Brazil and allowing competitors to develop the country's oil fields. Petrobras also reached the mark of producing one million barrels per day. The company executed agreements with other Latin American governments and began operations outside of Brazilian domains.
* 2000: The company reached the world record of oil exploration in deep waters, at 1,877 meters below sea level.
* 2001: An accident occurred at the P-36 Platform, which was the world's biggest oil platform. The platform, owing to technical failures, sank on 20 May with about 1500 tons of oil.
* 2003: The company acquired Argentina's largest oil company Perez Companc Energía (PECOM Energía S.A.), and its operational bases in Bolivia, Peru and Paraguay.
* 2006: Petrobras achieved Brazilian self-sufficiency in oil.
* 2007: The company recorded its highest earnings ever, with more than US$13 billion of profit. The company announced the discovery of the giant oil field "Jupiter", in Santos. Value of the company's shares increased by about 106%, from February to December.
* 2008: The company discovered what could be the world's third largest oil field. The actual reserves are yet to be verified, however.

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Re: Los pegostes de Cronos

Saturday mail delivery in Canada was eliminated by Canada Post on February 1, 1969!

In Tokyo, a bicycle is faster than a car for most trips of less than 50 minutes!

There are 18 different animal shapes in the Animal Crackers cookie zoo!

Should there be a crash, Prince Charles and Prince William never travel on the same airplane as a precaution!

Your body is creating and killing 15 million red blood cells per second!

The king of hearts is the only king without a moustache on a standard playing card!

There are no clocks in Las Vegas gambling casinos!

There is one slot machine in Las Vegas for every eight inhabitants!


The Mona Lisa has no eyebrows. It was the fashion in Renaissance Florence to shave them off!


Every day 20 banks are robbed. The average take is $2,500!

The most popular first name in the world is Muhammad!

Tablecloths were originally meant to be served as towels with which dinner guests could wipe their hands and faces after eating!

Tourists visiting Iceland should know that tipping at a restaurant is considered an insult!

One car out of every 230 made was stolen last year!

The names of Popeye's four nephews are Pipeye, Peepeye, Pupeye, and Poopeye!





Until the nineteenth century, solid blocks of tea were used as money in Siberia!

The Nobel Peace Prize medal depicts three naked men with their hands on each other's shoulders!

When glass breaks, the cracks move faster than 3,000 miles per hour. To photograph the event, a camera must shoot at a millionth of a second!

A Boeing 747 airliner holds 57,285 gallons of fuel!

A car uses 1.6 ounces of gas idling for one minute. Half an ounce is used to start the average automobile!



The Philadelphia mint produces 26 million pennies per day!


A lightning bolt generates temperatures five times hotter than those found at the sun's surface!

A violin contains about 70 separate pieces of wood!

It is estimated that 4 million "junk" telephone calls, phone solicitations by persons or programmed machine are made every day in the United States!

It takes glass one million years to decompose, which means it never wears out and can be recycled an infinite amount of times!

Forest fires move faster uphill than downhill!

Almost half the newspapers in the world are published in the United States and Canada!


........1..2..3...breathe....and repeat...........


The two-foot long bird called a Kea that lives in New Zealand likes to eat the strips of rubber around car windows!

Most lipstick contains fish scales!

Skepticisms is the longest word that alternates hands when typing!

One ragweed plant can release as many as one billion grains of pollen!

It's illegal to drink beer out of a bucket while you're sitting on a curb in St. Louis!


The first product to have a bar code was Wrigleys gum!


No piece of square dry paper can be folded more than 7 times in half!

A group of geese on the ground is a gaggle, a group of geese in the air is a skein!

Over 2500 left handed people a year are killed from using products made for right handed people!

There are more than 10 million bricks in the Empire State Building!

If you counted 24 hours a day, it would take 31,688 years to reach one trillion!

Taphephobia is the fear of being buried alive!

A crocodile always grows new teeth to replace the old teeth!

The sun is 330,330 times larger than the earth!

Clinophobia is the fear of beds!

A 'jiffy' is an actual unit of time for 1/100th of a second!

Porcupines float in water!

Pinocchio is Italian for "pine eye"!

The sentence "The quick brown fox jumps over a lazy dog." uses every letter of the alphabet!

The average life span of a major league baseball is 5-7 pitches!

The Mint once considered producing doughnut-shaped coins!

The only 15 letter word that can be spelled without repeating a letter is "uncopyrightable"!

The longest recorded flight of a chicken is 13 seconds!

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Talibánes en Kandahar,Afganistán:5 coches-bomba estallan,matan como a 40

Cinco coches bomba crean temblor en Afganistán
La poderosa explosión sincronizada de los artefactos hizo que volaran vidrios en toda la ciudad y llamaradas de varios metros de altura; los reportes indican al menos 36 muertos y 64 her

Reportan fuerte explosión en Kandahar, la ciudad se cimbra
Por lo menos 36 personas murieron y 64 quedaron heridas el martes al detonarse en forma simultánea cinco vehículos cargados de explosivos en esta ciudad, la principal del sur de Afganistán, dijeron las autoridades.

La fuerza de las explosiones destrozó ventanas en toda la ciudad y lanzó llamaradas a gran altura.

Los funcionarios afganos dijeron que al parecer la explosión fue dirigida contra una empresa japonesa de construcción que emplea generalmente a obreros paquistaníes. La explosión destrozó la sede de la empresa y parte de un restaurante cercano, dijo un reportero de Associated Press que acudió al lugar.

El reportero agregó que la explosión fue la más potente que ha escuchado en casi 8 años de vivir en Kandahar, escenario de varios ataques del Talibán en los últimos años.

La explosión mató por lo menos a 36 personas e hirió a 64, dijo en un comunicado la oficina del gobernador.

Se desplomaron tantas casas y edificios cercanos que las autoridades temieron que el número de muertos podría aumentar. El reportero en el lugar estimó que fueron arrasados 40 comercios.

''Una vez más han matado a niños, mujeres y afganos inocentes. No son humanos. Son animales. Pueden ver con sus propios ojos la destrucción causada por este enemigo'', dijo Shah.
Cinco vehículos cargados de explosivos fueron detonados juntos en una gran explosión, dijo el miembro del consejo provincial Ashi Agha Lalai.

Los insurgentes talibanes han realizado varios ataques complejos en Kandahar en los últimos años. Kandahar es la cuna espiritual del Talibán y aunque una gran base de la OTAN se asienta en la periferia de la ciudad, los insurgentes controlan los distritos aledaños al oeste de la población.

Por otra parte, una carga explosiva detonada al pie de una carretera en el sur de Afganistán mató el martes a cuatro soldados estadounidenses, según la teniente Christine Sidenstricker, vocera del alto mando, dijo que los cuatro murieron en el sur del país a causa de la explosión, pero no dio más detalles por no haber sido notificados sus familiares.

Con los muertos son 41 los soldados estadounidenses muertos en lo que va de mes en Afganistán, el segundo mes más mortífero desde la invasión del 2001. El mes pasado murieron 44 soldados.

Este año ha sido el más mortífero para las fuerzas estadounidenses desde el comienzo de la guerra. Por lo menos 177 soldados norteamericanos han muerto en combate en lo que va de año en esta nación asiática.

Estados Unidos tiene más de 60 mil soldados en el país...

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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~

Impulse Turbine

Impulse Turbine, Escher Wyss & Co., Zurich, Switzerland, 1903
Impulse Turbine, Escher Wyss & Co., Zurich, Switzerland, 1903

Escher Wyss & Co., Zurich, Switzerland, 1903

This turbine – the first by Heinrich Zoelly – was coupled to a dynamo. In the single-stage de Laval turbine the entire steam pressure energy is transformed into kinetic energy in one set of steam nozzles and transferred to one runner. This results in a very high number of revolutions. In the Zoelly turbine the steam pressure energy is transformed into kinetic energy in several sets of steam nozzles one after the other and transferred to several runners.The pressure in the first set of nozzles drops only as far as it is necessary for the corresponding runner to develop the desired number of revolutions. The process is repeated in the subsequent combinations of set of nozzles/runner until the pressure is completely reduced. The size of the high- and low-pressure sections is adapted to the respective volume of steam.

Original

Steam admission pressure: 11 bar
Steam admission temperature: 185 ºC
Number of revolutions: 3000 min-1
Output: 365 kW

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Re: Palabras encadenadas

Historia en México de ASEA y Brown Boveri

* En el año 1883 fue fundada la empresa ASEA en Suecia.

* En 1892 fue fundada Brown Boveri Co. en Suiza

* En México Brown Boveri está representada localmente desde 1900, y se estableció en 1947 como BBC Mexicana fabricando tableros de control, hornos de inducción e interruptores de alta tensión, etc.

* ASEA está presente en México desde 1928 como una representación local. En 1960 fue establecida como subsidiaria y en 1962 inició la fabricación de motores eléctricos, relays, tableros de control y protección.

* En 1988 ABB inicia sus operaciones alrededor del mundo con la fusión de ASEA y Brown Boveri.

* En 1990 se establecen cuatro compañías importantes constituidas como una empresa corporativa: ABB Equipos y Sistemas, ABB Flakt, ABB Motores y ABB Capacitores.

* Para 1992 fiscalmente aparece ABB en México y a partir del 1° de septiembre del 2000 cambia de razón social a ABB México, S.A. de C.V.

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Re: Palabras encadenadas en ingles.

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.[1]

It has almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine (invented by Thomas Newcomen and greatly improved by James Watt) primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-to-weight ratio.
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator – about 80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam turbines.
The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible process.

* 1 History

The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century by Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt.[2][3][4] More than a thousand years later, the first impact steam turbine with practical applications was invented in 1551 by Taqi al-Din in Ottoman Egypt, who described it as a prime mover for rotating a spit. Similar smoke jacks were later described by John Wilkins in 1648 and Samuel Pepys in 1660. Another steam turbine device was created by Italian Giovanni Branca in 1629.[5]

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by the Englishman Sir Charles Parsons, whose first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW of electricity.[6] After the invention of Parson's steam turbine, which made cheap and plentiful electricity possible and revolutionised marine transport and naval warfare, the world would never be the same again.[7] His patent was licensed and the turbine scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval) accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. This was good, because the turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam. It is also, however, considerably less efficient.
The Parson's turbine also turned out to be easy to scale-up. Parsons had the satisfaction of seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations. The size of his generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW set up to units of 50,000 kW capacity. He knew that the total output from turbo-generators constructed by his firm C. A. Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes alone, had exceeded thirty million horse-power.[6] Within Parson's lifetime the generating capacity of a unit was scaled-up by about 10,000 times.[8]

Types

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.

Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions

These types include condensing, noncondensing, reheat, extraction and induction.

Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available.

Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.

Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion.

Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.

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¡ Todos los vertebrados tiene Sesos !

El cerebro es una parte del encéfalo de los animales vertebrados, siendo un componente del sistema nervioso rico en neuronas con funciones especializadas. En otros invertebrados, se denomina también al principal ganglio o conjunto de ganglios

La existencia de primordios cerebrales se ubica al menos en la llamada "Explosión cámbrica", cuando se observan moluscos y gusanos que además de un sistema nervioso vago periférico y difuso distribuido en una simetría radial poseen un, o un conjunto, de ganglios neurales que rigen varias actividades del organismo de estos animales primitivos; en los vermes, peripatos, artrópodos y procordados se observa el inicio de la "cerebración" esto es, el inicio de la organización de un conjunto de ganglios nerviosos rectores que sirven de interfase coordinadora entre el interior del cuerpo del animal y el exterior del mismo.

La ubicación cefálica de ningún modo ha sido al azar: en los primitivos vermes, artrópodos y procordados con cuerpo longilíneo y de simetría bilateral (la misma que mantiene el Homo sapiens) el sistema nervioso central se ubica en la parte anterior o delantera ya que es (por ejemplo en un gusano) la primera parte en entrar en un intenso contacto con el medioambiente, del mismo modo histológicamente se puede observar un nexo inicial (embrional) entre las células dérmicas y las nerviosas del cérebro ya que las neuronas serían, mutación y evolución mediante, una gran especialización de células dérmicas. Al tomar postura erguida, animales como los primates, pasan a tener el sistema nervioso central (y su parte principal: el cerebro) ya no en la parte delantera de su cuerpo sino en su parte superior (en ambos casos: su cabeza). También es explicable filogenéticamente la corticalización, esto es la aparición y desarrollo del córtex cerebral a partir del sistema límbico y su progresivo desarrollo en áreas de arquitectura neuronal cada vez más complejas.

Este desarrollo filogénetico se puede percibir ontogenéticamente en cada embrión de animal cordado al observar la llamada "recapitulación de Häckel". La estructura precursora del sistema nervioso es el tubo neural, una estructura que aparece en la parte externa de los embriones en fase gástrula. Este tubo, a lo largo de la embriogénesis, sufre una serie de modificaciones que dan lugar a la estructura madura. El primero de ellos es la aparición de tres expansiones, tres vesículas: el encéfalo anterior, el encéfalo medio y el encéfalo posterior; su cavidad, llena de líquido, es precursora de los ventrículos cerebrales. Después, estas tres vesículas dan lugar a cinco que, en su ganancia de complejidad, sufren una serie de plegamientos que hacen que la estructura no sea ya lineal.[1]

* 1 Características generales

* El cerebro humano pesa aproximadamente 1300-1600 gramos. Su superficie (la llamada corteza cerebral), si estuviera extendida, cubriría una superficie de 1800-2300 centímetros cuadrados. Se estima que en el interior de la corteza cerebral hay unos 22.000 millones de neuronas, aunque hay estudios que llegan a reducir esa cifra a los 10.000 millones y otros a ampliarla hasta los 100.000 millones. Por otra parte, el cerebro es el único órgano completamente protegido por una bóveda ósea y alojado en la cavidad craneal.

Regiones

En el cerebro de los cordados se identifican las siguientes regiones:

* Rombencéfalo
o Mielencéfalo
+ Médula oblonga
o Metencéfalo
+ Puente de Varolio
+ Cerebelo
* Mesencéfalo
o Téctum
o Tegumento mesencefálico
o crus cerebri
* Prosencéfalo
o Diencéfalo
+ epitálamo
# glándula pineal
+ Tálamo
+ Hipotálamo
+ Glándula pituitaria
o Telencéfalo
+ arquipalio
# ganglio basal
* núcleo caudado
* sustancia negra
* cuerpo estriado
# amígdala cerebral
+ Paleopalio
# corteza piriforme
# bulbo olfatorio
# amígdala cerebral
+ neopalio
# Corteza cerebral
* Lóbulo frontal
* Lóbulo temporal
* Lóbulo parietal
* Lóbulo occipital
* ínsula
* corteza cingulada

Neurotransmisión
La sinapsis permite a las neuronas comunicarse entre sí, transformando una señal eléctrica en otra química

La transmisión de información dentro del cerebro así como sus aferencias se produce mediante la actividad de sustancias denominadas neurotransmisores, sustancias capaces de provocar la transmisión del impulso nervioso. Estos neurotransmisores se reciben en las dendritas y se emiten en los axones. El cerebro usa la energía bioquímica procedente del metabolismo celular como desencadenante de las reacciones neuronales.

Cada neurona pertenece a una región metabólica encargada de compensar la deficiencia o exceso de cargas en otras neuronas. Se puede decir que el proceso se ha completado cuando la región afectada deja de ser activa. Cuando la activación de una región tiene como consecuencia la activación de otra diferente, se puede decir que entre ambas regiones ha habido un intercambio biomolecular. Todos los resultados y reacciones desencadenantes son transmitidos por neurotransmisores, y el alcance de dicha reacción puede ser inmediata (afecta directamente a otras neuronas pertenecientes a la misma región de proceso), local (afecta a otra región de proceso ajena a la inicial) y/o global (afecta a todo el sistema nervioso).
La acetil colina, un neurotransmisor.

Dada la naturaleza de la electricidad en el cerebro, se ha convenido en llamarlo bioelectricidad. El comportamiento de la electricidad es esencialmente igual tanto en un conductor de cobre como en los axones neuronales, si bien lo que porta la carga dentro del sistema nervioso es lo que hace diferente el funcionamiento entre ambos sistemas de conducción eléctrica. En el caso del sistema nervioso, lo porta el neurotransmisor.

Un neurotransmisor es una molécula en estado de transición, con déficit o superávit de cargas. Este estado de transición le da un tiempo máximo de estabilidad de unas cuantas vibraciones moleculares. Durante ese tiempo, la molécula ha de acoplarse al receptor postsináptico adecuado, caso contrario degrada y queda como residuo en el líquido cefalorraquídeo. Los astrocitos se encargan de limpiar dicho fluido de estos desechos, permitiendo que las futuras neurotransmisiones no se vean interferidas.

El agotamiento somático de la neurona acontece en el momento que las producciones de vesículas con neurotransmisores es inferior a las vesículas presinápticas usadas, llegando a existir potenciales de acción pero sin haber vesículas disponibles para continuar con el proceso. Estos casos se dan muy frecuentemente en los procesos de aprendizaje, en donde la neurona ha de invertir un alto coste en neurotransmisores para que pueda existir una recepción óptima por alguna dendrita cercana y especializada en procesar esa información. Los potenciales de acción no transmitidos, producen iones de calcio en el medio, saturándolo de este ion que es capaz de facilitar la conducción eléctrica. Elevados los índices de este ion, el potencial eléctrico tiene mayor probabilidad de dar el salto a una dendrita cercana, y mediante las fuerzas electrostáticas, mejorar la cercanía entre axón-dendrita, disminuyendo la resistencia y los iones de calcio necesarios en el medio cefalorraquídeo.

De este modo, el esquema de funcionamiento sería el siguiente: la neurona A demanda paquete de energía, la neurona B recibe el estímulo. La neurona B procesa paquete de energía, la neurona B emite paquete de energía con carga eléctrica. El paquete es transmitido por el cuerpo del axón gracias al recubrimiento lipídico de mielina, y es llevado hasta la dendrita de la neurona A que tiene por costumbre recibir ese tipo de paquetes. El triaxón de la neurona B libera el paquete y la neurona A lo descompone y así sucesivamente.[2]

Estructura celular

A pesar del gran número de especies animales en los que se puede encontrar cerebro, hay un gran número de características comunes en su configuración celular, estructural y funcional. A nivel celular, el cerebro se compone de dos clases de células: las neuronas y las células gliales. Cabe destacar que las células gliales poseen una abundancia diez veces superior a la de las neuronas; además, sus tipos, diversos, realizan funciones de sostén estructural, metabólico, de aislamiento y de modulación del crecimiento o desarrollo.[3] Las neuronas se conectan entre sí para formar circuitos neuronales similares (pero no idénticos) a los circuitos eléctricos sintéticos. El cerebro se divide en secciones separadas espacialmente, composicionalmente y en muchos casos, funcionalmente. En los mamíferos, estas partes son el telencéfalo, el diencéfalo, el cerebelo y el tronco del encéfalo. Estas secciones se pueden dividir a su vez en hemisferios, lóbulos, corteza, áreas, etc.
A. Vista esquemática de un potencial de acción ideal, mostrando sus distintas fases. B. Registro real de un potencial de acción, normalmente deformado, comparado con el esquema debido a las técnicas electrofisiológicas utilizadas en la medición.

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Re: ¿Por que no renuncian altos mandos del Seguro Social?

Si renuncian todos los altos mandos del IMSS,seria bueno remplazarlos con puros'clones'de Juanito...

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Re: Para los amantes de RBD y la anorexia.

Habia además'el gordo y el flaco','Hans y Fritz',y muchos otros...

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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~

Abstraction is the process or result of generalization by reducing the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, typically to retain only information which is relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to a ball retains only the information on general ball attributes and behaviour. Similarly, abstracting happiness to an emotional state reduces the amount of information conveyed about the emotional state. Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems and communicate their solutions with the computer in some particular computer language.

* 1 Thought process
* 2 In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas[1] are distanced from ~~~~~~s.

Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication.


For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces . The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those ~~~~~~s. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their nine labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.


The delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas R. Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979):

(1) a publication

(2) a newspaper

(3) The San Francisco Chronicle

(4) the May 18 edition of the Chronicle

(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle

(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the Chronicle as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)

An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.

Referents

Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and at its best, to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.

Instantiation

Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown above.

It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts 'cat' and 'telephone' abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the ~~~~~~s in graph 1 above.

We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme.

Physicality

A physical ~~~~~~ (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time.

Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experience, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both.

An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.

Abstraction used in philosophy

Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is Thought space.

Ontological status

The way that physical ~~~~~~s, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.

Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars. E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.

In linguistics

Reification, also called hypostatization, might be considered a formal fallacy whenever an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete ~~~~~~. In linguistics this is called metonymy, in which abstract concepts are referred to using the same sorts of nouns that signify concrete ~~~~~~s. Metonymy is an aspect of the English language and of other languages. It can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things:

1805: Horatio Nelson (Battle of Trafalgar) - "England expects that every man will do his duty"

Compression

An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between ~~~~~~s and the process of associating these ~~~~~~s with an abstraction (which is itself an ~~~~~~).

For example, picture 1 above illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat".

Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of ~~~~~~s such as "mammals" and even categories such as "~~~~~~" as opposed to "action".

For example, graph 1 above expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location".

This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive compression of detail.

Abstraction in art

Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world[3]--it can, however, refer to an ~~~~~~ or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called non~~~~~~ive abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory.[4] Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from ~~~~~~ive context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs. [5]

In music, abstraction refers to the abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and lacking an externally imposed standard, is characterized by its internal relationships.[6]

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Dilo sin palabras:ABSTRACCIÓN!

El término abstracción puede hacer referencia a:

* Filosofía:

La abstracción, como aislamiento conceptual de la propiedad de un objeto.

* Informática:

La abstracción, un principio por el cual se aísla toda aquella información que no resulta relevante a un determinado nivel de conocimiento.

* Arte:

La abstracción, nueva forma de arte contemporáneo con una expresión que puede ser de un sentimiento como es definido en el arte tradicional, o derivado de una investigación artístico-científica, de la forma en interacción con el color (en pintura), y de la forma en interacción con el espacio (en escultura y arquitectura), que reduce la naturaleza a formas geométricas, busca liberarse de la individualidad tradiconal, expresa en formas no-figurativas, o utiliza formas geométricas básicas.

Véase también: abstracto

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Si las elecciones fueran ahora,yo ganaría:JUANITO!

Si las elecciones fueran ahora, yo ganaría: Juanito

Descarta competir en los comicios de 2012, pero se apunta para los de 2018. “En mi gobierno pueden participar priistas, panistas y Los Chuchos”.

- El jefe delegacional electo en Iztapalapa, Rafael Acosta, Juanito, consideró que ya rebasó a Andrés Manuel López Obrador en popularidad, “y si fueran las elecciones hoy, sí le gano”; sin embargo, confirmó que no competirá en los comicios de 2012, “pero sí dentro de nueve años, voy ha estar mejor preparado y sí voy a competir”.

“En popularidad, en popularidad, soy más popular ahora si que.. y ustedes lo están viendo”, si ahorita fueran las elecciones sí gano, la gente me apoya a escala nacional e internacional, diariamente recibo 250 llamadas o hasta más”, aseguró Juanito en entrevista a su llegada al cuarto informe de actividades del Sindicato Único de Trabajadores de la Música del Distrito Federal, donde asistió como invitado especial.

Ante la popularidad que ha alcanzado posterior a los comicios del pasado 5 de julio, confirmó que es la persona sencilla que nació y creció en la colonia Santa Martha, Iztapalapa.

“A pesar de que he recibido muestras de apoyo a escala nacional e internacional, y que incluso después del 15 de octubre realizaré un viaje a Europa, soy y sigo siendo del pueblo, mis pies siguen en el piso”, expresó.

Dijo que después de su triunfo, cuando recibió una llamada telefónica de López Obrador para felicitarlo, a la fecha no ha tenido contacto con él, pero reiteró que le hará llegar la invitación para que lo acompañe a su rendición de protesta que se realizará en la Asamblea Legislativa y en la sede delegacional.

Ante la poca comunicación que tiene con el ex candidato presidencial, Juanito negó que haya algún distanciamiento o problema con López Obrador, por el conflicto que tiene con Clara Brugada.

En relación con las declaraciones de la ex procuradora social, en las cuales minimizó el conflicto entre ambos y los problemas en Iztapalapa, Juanito fue contundente: “Bueno ella está nerviosa, a la mejor no le interesa Iztapalapa, a mi sí me interesa, por lo que continuaré recorriendo las colonias de la delegación para conocer de cerca las necesidades de los habitantes y solucionarlas cuando tome el cargo”.

Acosta reiteró su posición de exigir a Brugada que “sólo habrá delegación si, a través de una carta notariada”, accede a la repartición de 50 por ciento de direcciones territoriales y puestos de estructura en la demarcación política con militantes del PT.

En relación “al nerviosismo de Brugada”, comentó que él cumplirá su palabra que ofreció a López Obrador, “pero si la ALDF no aprueba a Brugada no es mi problema y yo gobernaré los tres años”.

A poco más de un mes de que asuma la jefatura delegacional, agregó que analiza a los “intelectuales y políticos” que formarán parte de su gabinete, “en mi gobierno pueden participar priistas, panistas y Los Chuchos”, y no descartó invitar a la ex candidata del PRD Silvia Oliva.

Al cuestionarle sobre la injerencia que puede tener Brugada para la elección de su equipo de trabajo, principalmente con Los Chuchos, Juanito fue claro: “Yo soy el delegado y yo voy a decidir a mi gente”.

En cuanto a las agresiones y amenazas que recibió, comentó que por el momento se han calmado, aunque informó que “si hay otra, Juanito la hará pública y no daré el cargo a Clara Brugada”.

Rafael Acosta entró al Gran Forum de Taxqueña, donde ya lo esperaba el secretario general del Sindicato Único de Trabajadores de la Música del Distrito Federal, Armando Jesús Baez Pinal, diputado electo de la cuarta circuscripción federal. Minutos después llegó el senador priista Carlos Aceves del Olmo.

Más tarde Juanito acudió al centro de la delegación Iztapalapa, donde empresarios de la Canirac, lo invitaron a una comida para refrendarle su apoyo como jefe delegacional electo.

“Ni lo conozco”

El presidente de la ALDF, Víctor Hugo Círigo, dijo desconocer la carrera política de Juanito y desconfió de sus aptitudes para gobernar la delegación más grande de la Ciudad de México.

“Jamás en acto alguno yo ubico a este personaje. La verdad es que no suelo ir al circo, a las carpas, ni veo películas de ficheras; entonces, quizás por eso no lo ubico”...

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Ciudad Juárez y Chihuahua,Chih.de las más violentas del mundo

Baja el DF al 4° lugar en homicidios dolosos

De acuerdo con el informe, la entidad más insegura es Chihuahua, seguida por Sinaloa, Baja California; 65% de la población se siente expuesta.

México.- La entidad más insegura del país es Chihuahua, seguida por Sinaloa, Baja California, el Distrito Federal y Guerrero, revela la sexta Encuesta Nacional sobre Inseguridad, elaborada por el Instituto Ciudadano de Estudios sobre la Inseguridad (Icesi) y el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). En la investigación se coloca además a México como la octava nación con mayor índice de homicidios dolosos, sólo por debajo de Colombia, Jamaica, Rusia y Ecuador.

El Distrito Federal se ve desplazado del primero al cuarto lugar, no obstante que presenta la incidencia y la prevalencia delictivas más altas, así como el segundo lugar en porcentaje de ilícitos a mano armada. La encuesta destaca que 65 por ciento de los mexicanos se sienten inseguros en la entidad donde viven.

De hecho, la encuesta revela que sólo en Chihuahua y Sinaloa la inseguridad y los homicidios dolosos han llegado a tal grado que tiene los mismos niveles de países como Sudáfrica o Venezuela, ya que los homicidios se incrementaron en el último año de 18 a 42 y en Sinaloa de 28 a 43 asesinatos por cada 100 mil habitantes.

“En zonas urbanas, la mayor novedad es el gran ascenso (ciento por ciento) de la criminalidad en la ciudad de Chihuahua, que ocupa el primer lugar, por encima de la Ciudad de México”.

El Termómetro del Delito 2009 elaborado por el Icesi indica que la incidencia delictiva tuvo un aumento en el último año, y aunque alejado de los primeros lugares, Aguascalientes registra uno de los mayores ascensos, el cual responde “a su altísima prevalencia delictiva, solamente superada por la del DF. Este fenómeno podría obedecer a la situación que se dio de complicidad de jefes policiacos con la delincuencia”.

A escala nacional la prevalencia y la incidencia delictivas, respecto de los años anteriores, tienen pocas variaciones al alza sin ser estadísticamente significativas por ejemplo, 11.5 por ciento de los mexicanos mayores de edad sufrieron algún delito, porcentaje ligeramente superior a las dos mediciones previas, y se cometieron 12 mil delitos por cada 100 mil habitantes, tasa levemente más alta a la registrada en 2004 y 2007.

Los países con mayor número de homicidios dolosos son Sudáfrica, con 49.6 asesinatos por cada 100 mil habitantes, seguido de Venezuela, con 47.0; Colombia, con 36.3; Jamaica, con 32.4; Rusia, con 32.4; Ecuador, 16.7; Suazilandia, con 13.3; México, con 12; Estonia, con 8.9, y Zimbaue con 8.2, en tanto que Estados Unidos ocupa el lugar número 18 con 4.3.

El estudio realizado por el Icesi detalla que uno de cuatro delitos se comete con algún arma, y de ellos en 34 por ciento de casos el delincuente la utiliza; ejemplo de ello es que sólo en el Estado de México 44 por ciento de los ilícitos se cometen a mano armada, por lo que esta entidad ha desplazado en el último año a Guerrero; sin embargo, la zona urbana con mayor proporción de crímenes por armas es Acapulco.

El delito más frecuente en el país es el robo a transeúnte que representa 30 por ciento de los delitos comunes, seguido por el robo de autopartes con 27 por ciento; respecto a la extorsión, por primera vez el Icesi lo incluyó en su encuesta y abarca 10 por ciento del total de ilícitos cometidos, porcentaje que supera a los correspondientes a los robos de vehículo, en casa-habitación y en cajero automático.

Una de las partes a destacar en la encuesta elaborada por el instituto que preside Luis de la Barreda expone que las principales razones que tienen los ciudadanos para no denunciar siguen siendo en primer lugar que se considera una pérdida de tiempo, y en segundo la desconfianza en la autoridad.

Mayor tasa

Por primera vez desde fines del siglo pasado, en México aumentó la tasa de homicidios dolosos, al pasar de 10 por 100 mil habitantes registrados en 2007 a 12 en 2008.

Por temor a ser víctima de algún delito, en seis de cada 10 hogares ya no se permite salir a los menores a la calle. Por el mismo motivo, la mitad de los mexicanos evita andar por las noches...

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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~

Flavor or flavour (see spelling differences) is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The "trigeminal senses", which detect chemical irritants in the mouth and throat, may also occasionally determine flavor. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorants, which affect these senses.

Flavorant is defined as a substance that gives another substance flavor, altering the characteristics of the solute, causing it to become sweet, sour, tangy, etc.

Of the three chemical senses, smell is the main determinant of a food item's flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and savory (umami) – the basic tastes – the smells of a food are potentially limitless. A food's flavor, therefore, can be easily altered by changing its smell while keeping its taste similar. Nowhere is this better exemplified than in artificially flavored jellies, soft drinks and candies, which, while made of bases with a similar taste, have dramatically different flavors due to the use of different scents or fragrances. The flavorings of commercially produced food products are typically created by flavorists.

Although the terms "flavoring" or "flavorant" in common language denote the combined chemical sensations of taste and smell, the same terms are usually used in the fragrance and flavors industry to refer to edible chemicals and extracts that alter the flavor of food and food products through the sense of smell. Due to the high cost or unavailability of natural flavor extracts, most commercial flavorants are nature-identical, which means that they are the chemical equivalent of natural flavors but chemically synthesized rather than being extracted from the source materials.

* 1 Flavorants or flavorings
Flavorings are focused on altering or enhancing the flavors of natural food product such as meats and vegetables, or creating flavor for food products that do not have the desired flavors such as candies and other snacks. Most types of flavorings are focused on scent and taste. Few commercial products exist to stimulate the trigeminal senses, since these are sharp, astringent, and typically unpleasant flavors.

There are three principal types of flavorings used in foods, under definitions agreed in the E.U. and Australia: [1]

* Natural flavoring substances: Flavoring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavoring substances.
* Nature-identical flavoring substances: Flavoring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically identical to flavoring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavoring substances.
* Artificial flavoring substances: Flavoring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed.

Smell

Smell flavorants, or simply, flavorants, are engineered and composed in similar ways as with industrial fragrances and fine perfumes. To produce natural flavors, the flavorant must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve solvent extraction, distillation, or using force to squeeze it out. The extracts are then usually further purified and subsequently added to food products to flavor them. To begin producing artificial flavors, flavor manufacturers must either find out the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals and mix them appropriately to produce a desired flavor or create a novel non-toxic artificial compound that gives a specific flavor.

Most artificial flavors are specific and often complex mixtures of singular naturally occurring flavor compounds combined together to either imitate or enhance a natural flavor. These mixtures are formulated by flavorist to give a food product a unique flavor and to maintain flavor consistency between different product batches or after recipe changes.

Chemical Odor
Diacetyl Buttery
Isoamyl acetate Banana
Benzaldehyde Bitter almond
Cinnamic aldehyde Cinnamon
Ethyl propionate Fruity
Methyl anthranilate Grape
Limonene Orange
Ethyl- (E, Z)-2,4-decadienoate Pear
Allyl hexanoate Pineapple
Ethyl maltol Sugar, Cotton candy
Ethylvanillin Vanilla
Methyl salicylate Wintergreen

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume. In fact, artificial flavors may be safer to consume than natural flavors due to the standards of purity and mixture consistency that are enforced either by the company or by law.[4] Natural flavors in contrast may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.[4]

Taste

While salt and sugar can technically be considered flavorants that enhance salty and sweet tastes, usually only compounds that enhance umami, as well as other secondary flavors are considered taste flavorants. Artificial sweeteners are also technically flavorants.

Umami or "savory" flavorants, more commonly called taste or flavor enhancers are largely based on Amino acids and Nucleotides. These are manufactured as sodium or calcium salts. Umami flavorants recognized and approved by the European Union include:

* Glutamic acid salts: This amino acid's sodium salt, monosodium glutamate (MSG) is one of the most commonly used flavor enhancers in food processing. Mono and diglutamate salts are also commonly used.
* Glycine salts: A simple amino acid that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer.
* Guanylic acid salts: Nucleotide salts that is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer.
* Inosinic acid salts: Nucleotide salts created from the breakdown of AMP. Due to high costs of production, it is usually used in conjunction with glutamic acid as a flavor enhancer.
* 5'-ribonucleotides salts:

Certain organic acids can be used to enhance sour tastes, but like salt and sugar these are usually not considered and regulated as flavorants under law. Each acid imparts a slightly different sour or tart taste that alters the flavor of a food.

* Acetic acid: gives vinegar its sour taste and distinctive smell
* Citric acid: found in citrus fruits and gives them their sour taste
* Lactic acid: found in various milk products and give them a rich tartness
* Malic acid: found in apples and gives them their sour/tart taste
* Tartaric acid: found in grapes and wines and gives them a tart taste

Dietary restrictions

Food manufacturers are sometimes reluctant about informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products glycerin, gelatin, and the like, and the use of alcohol in the flavors. Orthodox Jews, Jains, Hindus, and Muslims adhere to religious laws, and vegans to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal by-products and alcohol in foods unless subject to oversight and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief. In many western countries, consumers rely on a Jewish Kosher Pareve certification mark to indicate that natural flavorings used in a food product are free of meat and dairy (although they can still contain fish). The Vegan Society's Sunflower symbol (which is currently used by over 260 companies world wide) can also be used to see which products do not use any animal ingredients (including flavorings and colorings)

Flavor creation

Most food and beverage companies do not create their own flavors but instead employ the services of a flavor company. Food and beverage companies may require flavors for new products, product line extensions (e.g., low fat versions of existing products) or due to changes in formula or processing for existing products.

The flavor creation is done by a specially trained scientist called a "flavorist." The flavorist's job combines extensive scientific knowledge of the chemical palette with artistic creativity to develop new and distinctive flavors. The flavor creation begins when the flavorist receives a brief from the client. In the brief the client will attempt to communicate exactly what type of flavor they seek, in what application it will be used, and any special requirements (e.g., must be all natural). The communication barrier can be quite difficult to overcome since most people aren't experienced at describing flavors. The flavorist will use his or her knowledge of the available chemical ingredients to create a formula and compound it on an electronic balance. The flavor will then be submitted to the client for testing. Several iterations, with feedback from the client, may be needed before the right flavor is found.

Additional work may also be done by the flavor company. For example, the flavor company may conduct sensory taste tests to test consumer acceptance of a flavor before it is sent to the client or to further investigate the "sensory space." The flavor company may also employ application specialists who work to ensure the flavor will work in the application for which it is intended. This may require special flavor delivery technologies that are used to protect the flavor during processing or cooking so that the flavor is only released when eaten by the end consumer.