Los pegostes de Cronos

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Lo Verdadero suele ser un HECHO,cosa que sucede,realidad!

Hecho puede referirse a:

* Hecho científico
* Hecho (filosofía), una noción muy general sobre lo que es el caso.
* Hecho social
* Hecho jurídico
* Hecho histórico, o acontecimiento.
* Hecho periodístico, o noticia.
* Hechos de los Apóstoles, libro del Nuevo Testamento.
* Valle de Hecho, valle pirenaico y municipio español en la provincia de Huesca...

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Re: El largo proceso de INDEPENDENCIA de Mx.:¡Un final perverso e infeliz!!

¿Es un HECHO la INDEPENDENCIA de México?

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Re: Qué te hace más felíz o infelíz.

Me hace moderadamente FELIZ el existir y persistir durante tantos años!

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Re: Palabras encadenadas en ingles.

Data are pieces of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum", which is seldom used) are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and knowledge are derived.

* The word data (pronounced /ˈdeɪtə/, /ˈdætə/, or /ˈdɑːtə/) is the Latin plural of datum, neuter past participle of dare, "to give", hence "something given". The past participle of "to give" has been used for millennia, in the sense of a statement accepted at fn, Data).
In discussions of problems in geometry, mathematics, engineering, and so on, the terms givens and data are used interchangeably. Such usage is the origin of data as a concept in computer science: data are numbers, words, images, etc., accepted as they stand.

Usage in English

In English, the word datum is still used in the general sense of "something given". In cartography, geography, nuclear magnetic resonance and technical drawing it is often used to refer to a single specific reference datum from which distances to all other data are measured. Any measurement or result is a datum, but data point is more common,[1] albeit tautological. Both datums (see usage in datum article) and the originally Latin plural data are used as the plural of datum in English, but data is more commonly treated as a mass noun and used in the singular, especially in day-to-day usage. For example, "This is all the data from the experiment". This usage is inconsistent with the rules of Latin grammar and traditional English,[citation needed] which would instead suggest "These are all the data from the experiment".

Some British and UN academic, scientific and professional style guides[2] request that authors treat data as a plural noun. Other international organizations, such as the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society,[3] allow its usage as either a mass noun or plural based on author preference.
The Air Force Flight Test Center, in its publication The Author's Guide to Writing Air Force Flight Test Center Technical Reports specifically states that the word data is always plural, never singular.

Data is now often treated as a singular mass noun in informal usage, but usage in scientific publications shows a divide between the United States and United Kingdom.
In the United States the word data is sometimes used in the singular, though scientists and science writers more often maintain the traditional plural usage. Some major newspapers such as The New York Times use it alternately in the singular or plural. In the New York Times the phrases "the survey data are still being analyzed" and "the first year for which data is available" have appeared on the same day. In scientific writing data is often treated as a plural, as in These data do not support the conclusions, but many people now think of data as a singular mass entity like information and use the singular in general usage."[4] British usage now widely accepts treating data as singular in standard English,[5] including everyday newspaper usage[6] at least in non-scientific use.[7] UK scientific publishing still prefers treating it as a plural.[8] Some UK university style guides recommend using data for both singular and plural use[9] and some recommend treating it only as a singular in connection with computers.[10]

'Raw data refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other outputs from devices to convert physical quantities into symbols, that are unprocessed. Such data is typically further processed by a human or input into a computer, stored and processed there, or transmitted (output) to another human or computer (possibly through a data cable). Raw data is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next.

Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An analog computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet.

Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for metadata is "ancillary data." The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books.

Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording.

Meaning of data, information and knowledge

The terms information and knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the level of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is the highest level among all three.[citation needed] For example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data", a book on Mt. Everest geological characteristics may be considered as "information", and a report containing practical information on the best way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be considered as "knowledge".

Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

Beynon-Davies [11] uses the concept of a sign to distinguish between data and information. Data are symbols. Information occurs when symbols are used to refer to something.

According to Mr.Wayne Tomasi, information is knowledge or intelligence whereas, data is a processed, organized and stored information...

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Re: Palabras encadenadasatos,base o banco de datos

Una base de datos o banco de datos (en inglés: database) es un conjunto de datos pertenecientes a un mismo contexto y almacenados sistemáticamente para su posterior uso. En este sentido, una biblioteca puede considerarse una base de datos compuesta en su mayoría por documentos y textos impresos en papel e indexados para su consulta. En la actualidad, y debido al desarrollo tecnológico de campos como la informática y la electrónica, la mayoría de las bases de datos están en formato digital (electrónico), que ofrece un amplio rango de soluciones al problema de almacenar datos.

Las aplicaciones más usuales son para la gestión de empresas e instituciones públicas. También son ampliamente utilizadas en entornos científicos con el objeto de almacenar la información experimental.

Las bases de datos pueden clasificarse de varias maneras, de acuerdo al contexto que se este manejando, o la utilidad de la misma:

Según la variabilidad de los datos almacenados

Bases de datos estáticas

Éstas son bases de datos de sólo lectura, utilizadas primordialmente para almacenar datos históricos que posteriormente se pueden utilizar para estudiar el comportamiento de un conjunto de datos a través del tiempo, realizar proyecciones y tomar decisiones.

Bases de datos dinámicas

Éstas son bases de datos donde la información almacenada se modifica con el tiempo, permitiendo operaciones como actualización, borrado y adición de datos, además de las operaciones fundamentales de consulta. Un ejemplo de esto puede ser la base de datos utilizada en un sistema de información de una tienda de abarrotes, una farmacia, un videoclub.

Según el contenido

Bases de datos bibliográficas

Solo contienen un surrogante (representante) de la fuente primaria, que permite localizarla. Un registro típico de una base de datos bibliográfica contiene información sobre el autor, fecha de publicación, editorial, título, edición, de una determinada publicación, etc. Puede contener un resumen o extracto de la publicación original, pero nunca el texto completo, porque si no estaríamos en presencia de una base de datos a texto completo (o de fuentes primarias—ver más abajo). Como su nombre lo indica, el contenido son cifras o números. Por ejemplo, una colección de resultados de análisis de laboratorio, entre otras.

Bases de datos de texto completo

Almacenan las fuentes primarias, como por ejemplo, todo el contenido de todas las ediciones de una colección de revistas científicas.

Directorios

Un ejemplo son las guías telefónicas en formato electrónico.

Bases de datos o "bibliotecas" de información Biológica

Son bases de datos que almacenan diferentes tipos de información proveniente de las ciencias de la vida o médicas. Se pueden considerar en varios subtipos:

* Aquellas que almacenan secuencias de nucleótidos o proteínas.
* Las bases de datos de rutas metabólicas
* Bases de datos de estructura, comprende los registros de datos experimentales sobre estructuras 3D de biomoléculas
* Bases de datos clínicas
* Bases de datos bibliográficas (biológicas)

Modelos de bases de datos

Además de la clasificación por la función de las bases de datos, éstas también se pueden clasificar de acuerdo a su modelo de administración de datos.

Un modelo de datos es básicamente una "descripción" de algo conocido como contenedor de datos (algo en donde se guarda la información), así como de los métodos para almacenar y recuperar información de esos contenedores. Los modelos de datos no son cosas físicas: son abstracciones que permiten la implementación de un sistema eficiente de base de datos; por lo general se refieren a algoritmos, y conceptos matemáticos.

Algunos modelos con frecuencia utilizados en las bases de datos:

Base de datos jerárquica

Éstas son bases de datos que, como su nombre indica, almacenan su información en una estructura jerárquica. En este modelo los datos se organizan en una forma similar a un árbol (visto al revés), en donde un nodo padre de información puede tener varios hijos. El nodo que no tiene padres es llamado raíz, y a los nodos que no tienen hijos se los conoce como hojas.

Las bases de datos jerárquicas son especialmente útiles en el caso de aplicaciones que manejan un gran volumen de información y datos muy compartidos permitiendo crear estructuras estables y de gran rendimiento.

Una de las principales limitaciones de este modelo es su incapacidad de representar eficientemente la redundancia de datos.

Base de datos de red

Éste es un modelo ligeramente distinto del jerárquico; su diferencia fundamental es la modificación del concepto de nodo: se permite que un mismo nodo tenga varios padres (posibilidad no permitida en el modelo jerárquico).

Fue una gran mejora con respecto al modelo jerárquico, ya que ofrecía una solución eficiente al problema de redundancia de datos; pero, aun así, la dificultad que significa administrar la información en una base de datos de red ha significado que sea un modelo utilizado en su mayoría por programadores más que por usuarios finales.

Bases de datos Transaccionales

Son bases de datos cuyo único fin es el envío y recepción de datos a grandes velocidades, estas bases son muy poco comunes y están dirigidas por lo general al entorno de análisis de calidad, datos de producción e industrial, es importante entender que su fin único es recolectar y recuperar los datos a la mayor velocidad posible, por lo tanto la redundancia y duplicación de información no es un problema como con las demás bases de datos, por lo general para poderlas aprovechar al máximo permiten algún tipo de conectividad a bases de datos relacionales.

Base de datos relacional


Éste es el modelo utilizado en la actualidad para modelar problemas reales y administrar datos dinámicamente. Tras ser postulados sus fundamentos en 1970 por Edgar Frank Codd, de los laboratorios IBM en San José (California), no tardó en consolidarse como un nuevo paradigma en los modelos de base de datos. Su idea fundamental es el uso de "relaciones". Estas relaciones podrían considerarse en forma lógica como conjuntos de datos llamados "tuplas". Pese a que ésta es la teoría de las bases de datos relacionales creadas por Edgar Frank Codd, la mayoría de las veces se conceptualiza de una manera más fácil de imaginar. Esto es pensando en cada relación como si fuese una tabla que está compuesta por registros (las filas de una tabla), que representarían las tuplas, y campos (las columnas de una tabla).

En este modelo, el lugar y la forma en que se almacenen los datos no tienen relevancia (a diferencia de otros modelos como el jerárquico y el de red). Esto tiene la considerable ventaja de que es más fácil de entender y de utilizar para un usuario esporádico de la base de datos. La información puede ser recuperada o almacenada mediante "consultas" que ofrecen una amplia flexibilidad y poder para administrar la información.

El lenguaje más habitual para construir las consultas a bases de datos relacionales es SQL, Structured Query Language o Lenguaje Estructurado de Consultas, un estándar implementado por los principales motores o sistemas de gestión de bases de datos relacionales.

Durante su diseño, una base de datos relacional pasa por un proceso al que se le conoce como normalización de una base de datos.

Durante los años '80 (1980-1989) la aparición de dBASE produjo una revolución en los lenguajes de programación y sistemas de administración de datos. Aunque nunca debe olvidarse que dBase no utilizaba SQL como lenguaje base para su gestión.

Base de datos multidimensional

Son bases de datos ideadas para desarrollar aplicaciones muy concretas, como creación de Cubos OLAP. Básicamente no se diferencian demasiado de las bases de datos relacionales (una tabla en una base de datos relacional podría serlo también en una base de datos multidimensional), la diferencia está más bien a nivel conceptual; en las bases de datos multidimensionales los campos o atributos de una tabla pueden ser de dos tipos, o bien representan dimensiones de la tabla, o bien representan métricas que se desean estudiar.

Base de datos orientada a objetos

Este modelo, bastante reciente, y propio de los modelos informáticos orientados a objetos, trata de almacenar en la base de datos los objetos completos (estado y comportamiento).

Una base de datos orientada a objetos es una base de datos que incorpora todos los conceptos importantes del paradigma de objetos:

* Encapsulación - Propiedad que permite ocultar la información al resto de los objetos, impidiendo así accesos incorrectos o conflictos.
* Herencia - Propiedad a través de la cual los objetos heredan comportamiento dentro de una jerarquía de clases.
* Polimorfismo - Propiedad de una operación mediante la cual puede ser aplicada a distintos tipos de objetos.

En bases de datos orientadas a objetos, los usuarios pueden definir operaciones sobre los datos como parte de la definición de la base de datos. Una operación (llamada función) se especifica en dos partes. La interfaz (o signatura) de una operación incluye el nombre de la operación y los tipos de datos de sus argumentos (o parámetros). La implementación (o método) de la operación se especifica separadamente y puede modificarse sin afectar la interfaz. Los programas de aplicación de los usuarios pueden operar sobre los datos invocando a dichas operaciones a través de sus nombres y argumentos, sea cual sea la forma en la que se han implementado. Esto podría denominarse independencia entre programas y operaciones.

Véase también

* Sistema de gestión de base de datos
* Modelo relacional, normalización de bases de datos
* Base de datos orientada a objetos
* Almacén de datos (Data warehouse)
* Minería de datos
* Base de datos biológica
* Base de datos probabilística

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Re: Antes ingles y computacion...

A languaje is a languaje even for the uninformed!

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Re: Bicentenario ¿de la Revolución?

El proceso revolucionario iniciado en 1910 culmino en el siglo XXI con el orden político de la actual PARTIDOCRACIA!!!

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Re: Palabras encadenadas en ingles.

Steel is an alloy consisting mostly of iron, with a carbon content between 0.2% and 2.1% by weight, depending on the grade.
Carbon is the most cost-effective alloying material for iron, but various other alloying elements are used such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, and tungsten.[1]
Carbon and other elements act as a hardening agent, preventing dislocations in the iron atom crystal lattice from sliding past one another.
Varying the amount of alloying elements and form of their presence in the steel (solute elements, precipitated phase) controls qualities such as the hardness, ductility, and tensile strength of the resulting steel.
Steel with increased carbon content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but is also more brittle.

Alloys with a higher carbon content are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point and castability.[1] Steel is also distinguished from wrought iron, which can contain a small amount of carbon, but it is included in the form of slag inclusions. Two distinguishing factors are steel's increased rust-resistance and better weldability.

Though steel had been produced by various inefficient methods long before the Renaissance, its use became more common after more efficient production methods were devised in the 17th century.
With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century, steel became a relatively inexpensive mass-produced material.
Further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, further lowered the cost of production while increasing the quality of the metal.
Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, and appliances.
Modern steel is generally identified by various grades of steel defined by various standards organizations...

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Entendiendo al Mundo Económico/World economy

The world economy can be evaluated in various ways, depending on the model used, and this valuation can then be represented in various ways (for example, in 2006 US dollars). It is inseparable from the geography and ecology of Earth, and is therefore somewhat of a misnomer, since, while definitions and representations of the "world economy" vary widely, they must at a minimum exclude any consideration of resources or value based outside of the Earth. For example, while attempts could be made to calculate the value of currently unexploited mining opportunities in unclaimed territory in Antarctica, the same opportunities on Mars would not be considered a part of the world economy – even if currently exploited in some way – and could be considered of latent value only in the same way as uncreated intellectual property, such as a previously unconceived invention.

Beyond the minimum standard of concerning value in production, use, and exchange on the planet Earth, definitions, representations, models, and valuations of the world economy vary widely.

It is common to limit questions of the world economy exclusively to human economic activity, and the world economy is typically judged in monetary terms, even in cases in which there is no efficient market to help valuate certain goods or services, or in cases in which a lack of independent research or government cooperation makes establishing figures difficult. Typical examples are illegal drugs and other black market goods, which by any standard are a part of the world economy, but for which there is by definition no legal market of any kind.

However, even in cases in which there is a clear and efficient market to establish a monetary value, economists do not typically use the current or official exchange rate to translate the monetary units of this market into a single unit for the world economy, since exchange rates typically do not closely reflect worldwide value, for example in cases where the volume or price of transactions is closely regulated by the government. Rather, market valuations in a local currency are typically translated to a single monetary unit using the idea of purchasing power. This is the method used below, which is used for estimating worldwide economic activity in terms of real US dollars. However, the world economy can be evaluated and expressed in many more ways. It is unclear, for example, how many of the world's 6.7 billion people have most of their economic activity reflected in these valuations.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Economy – overview
2007–2008
Current account balance 2006[1]

Global output (gross world product) (GWP) rose by 3.2% in 2008, led by China (9%, equal to 21% of global growth), the US (1.1%, or 12% of growth), the European Union (0.9%, for a 10.5% share of growth) and India (7.3%, equal to 5.6% of the total rise). The 12 largest economies (the US, Japan, China, Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Russia, Spain, Brazil, Canada and India) contributed just over half of all economic growth in 2008.[2]

Growth results in the wealthy, or “advanced” economies, slowed by two-thirds, from 2.7% in 2007 to just 0.9% in 2008. Emerging Asia slowed from 9.8% to 6.8%; Emerging Europe from 5.4% to 2.9%; the Commonwealth of Independent States from 8.6% to 5.5%; the (non-OECD) Western Hemisphere from 5.7% to 4.2%; the Middle East from 6.3% to 5.9%; and Africa from 6.2% to 5.2%. [3]

Externally, the nation-state, as a bedrock economic-political institution, is steadily losing control over international flows of people, goods, funds, and technology.
Central governments are losing decision making powers and enhancing their international collective power thanks to strong economic bodies of which they democratically chose to become part, notably the EU. The introduction of the euro as the common currency of much of Western Europe in January 1999, while paving the way for an integrated economic powerhouse, poses economic risks because of varying levels of income and cultural and political differences among the participating nations.

Internally, the central government often finds its control over resources slipping as separatist regional movements - typically based on ethnicity - gain momentum, e.g., in many of the successor states of the former Soviet Union, in the former Yugoslavia, in India, in Iraq, and in Indonesia.

Statistical indicators
Economy

GDP (GWP) (gross world product): (purchasing power parity exchange rates) - $59.38 trillion (2005 est.), $51.48 trillion (2004), $23 trillion (2002)

GDP (GWP) (gross world product):’’’[4] (market exchange rates) - $60.69 trillion (2008)

GDP - real growth rate: 3.2% (2008), 3.1% p.a. (2000-07), 2.4% p.a. (1990-99), 3.1% p.a. (1980-89)

GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $9,300 (2005 est.), $8,200 (92) (2003), $7,900 (2002)

GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 32% services: 64% (2004 est.)

Inflation rate (consumer prices): developed countries 1% to 4% typically; developing countries 5% to 60% typically; national inflation rates vary widely in individual cases, from declining prices in Japan to hyperinflation in several Third World countries (2003)

Derivatives outstanding notional amount: $273 trillion (end of June 2004), $84 trillion (end-June 1998) ([4])

Global debt issuance: $5.187 trillion (2004), $4.938 trillion (2003), $3.938 trillion (2002) (Thomson Financial League Tables)

Global equity issuance: $505 billion (2004), $388 billion (2003), $319 billion (2002) (Thomson Financial League Tables)

Employment

Unemployment rate: 30% combined unemployment and underemployment in many non-industrialized countries; developed countries typically 4%-12% unemployment[citation needed]

Industries

Industrial production growth rate: 3% (2002 est.)

Energy

Yearly electricity - production: 15,850,000 GWh (2003 est.), 14,850,000 GWh (2001 est.)

Yearly electricity - consumption: 14,280,000 GWh (2003 est.), 13,930,000 GWh (2001 est.)

Oil - production: 79.65 million bbl/day (2003 est.), 75.46 million barrel/day (12,000,000 m³/d) (2001)

Oil - consumption: 80.1 million bbl/day (2003 est.), 76.21 million barrel/day (12,120,000 m³/d) (2001)

Oil - proved reserves: 1.025 trillion barrel (163 km³) (2001 est.)

Natural gas - production: 2,569 km³ (2001 est.)

Natural gas - consumption: 2,556 km³ (2001 est.)

Natural gas - proved reserves: 161,200 km³ (1 January 2002)

Cross-border

Yearly exports: $6.6 trillion (f.o.b., 2002 est.)

Exports - commodities: the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services

Exports - partners: US 17.4%, Germany 7.6%, UK 5.4%, France 5.1%, Japan 4.8%, China 4% (2002)

Yearly imports: $6.6 trillion (f.o.b., 2002 est.)

Imports - commodities: the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services

Imports - partners: US 11.2%, Germany 9.2%, China 7%, Japan 6.8%, France 4.7%, UK 4% (2002)

Debt - external: $2 trillion for less developed countries (2002 est.)

Gift economy

Yearly economic aid - recipient: Official Development Assistance (ODA) $50 billion...

Communications

Telephones - main lines in use: 843,923,500 (2007)
4,263,367,600 (2008)

Telephones - mobile cellular: 3,300,000,000 (Nov. 2007)[5]

Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 10,350 (2000 est.)

Internet users: 1,311,050,595 (January 18, 2008 [5] est.), 1,091,730,861 (December 30, 2006 [6] est.), 604,111,719 (2002 est.)

Transport

Transportation infrastructure worldwide includes:

* Airports
o Total: 49,973 (2004)
* Roadways (in kilometers)
o Total: 32,345,165 km
o Paved: 19,403,061 km
o Unpaved: 12,942,104 km (2002)
* Railways
o Total: 1,122,650 km includes about 190,000 to 195,000 km of electrified routes of which 147,760 km are in Europe, 24,509 km in the Far East, 11,050 km in Africa, 4,223 km in South America, and 4,160 km in North America.

Military

Military expenditures - dollar figure: aggregate real expenditure on arms worldwide in 1999 remained at approximately the 1998 level, about $750 billion, about 1/2 of which was the United States (1999)

Military expenditures - percent of GDP: roughly 2% of gross world product (1999).

See also

* List of most wealthy historical figures - The scope of the list is worldwide in history since the beginning of civilization.
* Globality
* Globalization
* Economy of Africa
* Economy of Asia
* Economy of Europe
* Economy of North America
* Economy of Oceania
* Economy of South America
* Energy policy
* List of billionaires
* List of countries by GDP sector composition
* North American Industry Classification System
* Steel production by country
* List of world's largest economies (nominal) - based on current currency market exchange rates for 2007
* List of world's largest economies (PPP) - based on purchasing power parity for 2007
* Historical list of world's largest economies (nominal) - for the years between 1998 and 2003
* Historical list of world's largest economies (PPP) - for the years between 1 and 1998
* World
* Trade route
* Economics
* Ecological economics
* 2007–2008 world food price crisis
* Late 2000s recession
* Oil price increases since 2003

References

1. ^ Current account balance, U.S. dollars, Billions from IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2008
2. ^ IMF ‘’World Economic Outlook, April 2009 http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/...9/01/index.htm
3. ^ IMF
4. ^ IMF ‘’all economy, April 2009 http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/...9/01/index.htm
5. ^ global cellphone penetration reaches 50 percent..

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Hoy,hoy,hoy:La economía del mundo/Economy of the World..

Economy of the World

During 2003 unless otherwise stated Population (August 24, 2009): 6,779,704,945 ([1])
GDP (PPP): US$70.65 trillion (2008 est.) ([2])
GDP (Currency): $54.62 trillion (2008 est.)
GDP/capita (PPP): $9,774
GDP/capita (Currency): $7,171 Annual growth of
per capita GDP (PPP): 5.1% (tty*), 2.1% (1950-2003)
People Paid Below $2 per day: 3.25 billion (~50%)
Millionaires (US$): ~9 million i.e. ~0.15% (2006)
Billionaires (US$): 793 (2009) [3], 1125 (2008)
Unemployment: 30% combined unemployment and underemployment in many non-industrialized countries. Developed countries typically 4-12% unemployment.
*Trailing-ten-years. Most numbers are from the UNDP from 2002, some numbers exclude certain countries for lack of information.
See also: Economy of the world - Economy of Africa - Economy of Asia - Economy of Europe - Economy of North America - Economy of Oceania - Economy of South America

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Principales acereras en el mundo...

Top 30 producers by the World Steel Association

This is a list of the largest steel-producing companies in the world according to the World Steel Association. The list is compiled from its page Top Steel Producers 2007. Note that not all steel is the same, some steel is far more valuable than other steel.

(Output in million metric tons crude steel; the country/region of producer's basing specified in brackets)

1. 116.4 Mton ArcelorMittal (Luxembourg HQ/Global)
2. 35.7 Mton Nippon Steel (Japan)
3. 34.0 Mton JFE (Japan)
4. 31.1 Mton POSCO (South Korea)
5. 28.6 Mton Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation (China)
6. 26.6 Mton Tata Steel (India / Global)
7. 23.6 Mton LiaoNing An-Ben Iron and Steel Group (China)
8. 22.9 Mton Shagang Group (China)
9. 22.8 Mton HeBei Tangshan Iron & Steel Group (China)
10. 21.5 Mton United States Steel Corporation (United States)
11. 20.2 Mton Wuhan Iron and Steel (China)
12. 20.0 Mton Nucor Corporation (United States)
13. 18.6 Mton Gerdau (Brazil)
14. 17.9 Mton Gruppo Riva (Italy)
15. 17.3 Mton Severstal (Russia)
16. 17.0 Mton ThyssenKrupp (Germany)
17. 16.2 Mton EvrazHolding (Russia)
18. 14.2 Mton Magang Group (China)
19. 13.9 Mton Steel Authority of India Limited (India)
20. 13.8 Mton Sumitomo Metal Industries (Japan)
21. 13.3 Mton Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works (Russia)
22. 13.1 Mton Techint (Argentina/Italy)
23. 12.9 Mton Shougang (China)
24. 12.1 Mton ShanDong Jinan (China)
25. 11.7 Mton ShanDong Laiwu Steel (China)
26. 11.1 Mton Valin Steel Group (China)
27. 10.9 Mton China Steel (Taiwan)
28. 10.1 Mton Imidro (Iran)
29. 10.0 Mton Hyundai INI Steel (South Korea)
30. 9.7 Mton Novolipetsk (Russia)

Total world steel output in 2007: 1,344,3 million metric tons (mmt)

It should be noted that the World Steel Association reports and analyzes its rankings in terms of steel volumes. There are many arguments suggesting that a better ranking should be based on steel revenues — probably based in US dollars[citation needed]. This can either be obtained by studying the company financials, or by estimating the average selling price per tonne of steel shipped (based on product mix) multiplied by the shipped tonnes in that year. But it is also to be noted that the W.S.A does not include the exact total production of steel manufactured world wide.
Indeed a lot of small independant companies or groups are not mentionned and their total yearly production could go up to 90 millions tons.
The most commun examples are cited in the Middle Eastern countries where a lot of rich individuals businessmans decide despite the economical globilization to set up their own steel plant. In Lebanon for instance, a country of 4,000,000 souls, a brand new steel complex ( Melt Shop on Induction Furnace, Roll Mill, Power Plant and Sea Port) is being installed and is programmed to begin the production of 300,000 tons per year in the beginning of 2010. For a small country who, for the time being, is importing 100 % of its consumption mainly from Russia, Ukraine or Syria, the installation of such a project is a huge investment and a big risk to the private owner.


Integer Research Ltd., a London based company, claims to produce a ranking based on steel revenues. It is not clear how this compares to a ranking based on steel volumes, but is likely to represent the value added elements in the steel making process.

Other major steel producers

* Aichi Steel Corporation, Japan
* Al Tawarqee Steel Mills Karachi, Pakistan
* AK Steel, formerly Armco, Middletown, Ohio
* BlueScope Steel, primarily in Australia
* Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional, Brasil
* Dongkuk Steel in Seoul, South Korea
* Essar Steel, India
* Erdemir in Karadeniz Ereğli, Turkey
* Beshay Steel, Egypt
* EZDK, Egypt
* Georgsmarienhütte GmbH, Germany
* Hadeed Iron and Steel,[citation needed], Saudia Arabia
* Ilyich Mariupol steel and iron works, Ukraine
* Japan Steel Works, Japan
* Jindal Steel, India
* JSW Steel, India
* Kobe Steel, Japan
* KVS Ispat, India
* Libyan Iron and Steel Company, Libya
* Lone Star Steel Company
* Nedstaal, Netherlands
* Nisshin, Japan
* Outokumpu, based in Finland
* Ovako, Sweden & Finland
* Pakistan Steel Mills Pakistan
* Panzhihua, China
* Rautaruukki, Finland
* Salzgitter AG, Germany
* SCM Holdings (divisions of), Ukraine
* Sheffield Forgemasters in Sheffield, England
* Sidetur, Venezuela
* SSAB, Sweden
* Stelco in Hamilton, Ontario
* Ternium -- Hylsa in Mexico, Siderar in Argentina, & Sidor in Venezuela
* Vizag Steel, India
* Voestalpine, Austria
* Sahaviriya Steel Industries, Thailand

Steel producers merged with other companies or no longer operating

* Arbed (merged in 2002 forming Arcelor)
* Arcelor (merged with Mittal forming ArcelorMittal)
* Corus Group (acquired by Tata Steel in 2007)
* Dofasco in Hamilton, Ontario (acquired by Arcelor, now ArcelorMittal)
* Bethlehem Steel Corporation (assets bought by ISG in 2003. ISG merged with Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* British Steel (merged with Koninklijke Hoogovens (NL) in 1999 to form Corus, now Tata Steel)
* Algoma Steel (assests bought by Essar Steel, India in April 2007)
* Koninklijke Hoogovens (merged with British Steel (UK) in 1999 to form Corus, now Tata Steel)
* Cockerill-Sambre (acquired by Usinor in 1998, which became part of Arcelor in 2002, now ArcelorMittal)
* Hoesch Stahl AG (acquired by ThyssenKrupp)
* Inland Steel Company (acquired by Ispat International became Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* International Steel Group (merged with Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* Mittal Steel Company (merged with Arcelor forming ArcelorMittal)
* Rouge Steel (formerly owned by Ford Motor Corporation) acquired by Severstal in 2004.
* National Steel Corporation (acquired by U.S. Steel in 2003)
* Republic Steel (acquired by ISG, which merged with Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* Weirton Steel (acquired by ISG, which merged with Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* Youngstown Sheet and Tube (acquired by ISG, which merged with Mittal, now ArcelorMittal)
* Northwestern Steel and Wire...

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Re: Vaya, tontos no son !!

¿Es Mx.una PARTIDOCRACIA?

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Re: Palabras encadenadas en ingles.

Influential political philosophers

A larger list of political philosophers is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are a few of the most canonical or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought.

* Confucius : The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order.
* Chanakya : Founder of an independent political thought in India, laid down rules and guidelines for social, law and political order in society.
* Mozi : Eponymous founder of the Mohist school, advocated a strict utilitarianism.
* Socrates/Plato: Named their practice of inquiry "philosophy", and thereby stand at the head of a prominent (often called "Western") tradition of systematic intellectual analysis. Set as a partial basis to that tradition the relation between knowledge on the one hand, and a just and good society on the other. Socrates is widely considered founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato.
* Aristotle: Wrote his Politics as an extension of his Nicomachean Ethics. Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals. His political theory is based upon an ethics of perfectionism (as is Marx's, on some readings).
* Mencius : One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled.
* Han Feizi : The major figure of the Chinese Fajia (Legalist) school, advocated government that adhered to laws and a strict method of administration.
* Thomas Aquinas : In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic teaching, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason, coupled with divine virtues and human law, provides the foundation for righteous government.
* Niccolò Machiavelli: First systematic analyses of: (1) how consent of a populace is negotiated between and among rulers rather than simply a naturalistic (or theological) given of the structure of society; (2) precursor to the concept of ideology in articulating the epistemological structure of commands and law.
* Thomas Hobbes: Generally considered to have first articulated how the concept of a social contract that justifies the actions of rulers (even where contrary to the individual desires of governed citizens), can be reconciled with a conception of sovereignty.
* Baruch Spinoza: Set forth the first analysis of "rational egoism", in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason. To Spinoza's thinking, in a society in which each individual is guided of reason, political authority would be superfluous.
* John Locke: Like Hobbes, described a social contract theory based on citizens' fundamental rights in the state of nature. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property. His arguments may have been deeply influential to the formation of the United States Constitution.
* Baron de Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state.
* David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that consent of the governed was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of utility, later picked up on and developed by Jeremy Bentham.
* Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Analyzed the social contract as an expression of the general will, and controversially argued in favor of absolute democracy where the people at large would act as sovereign.
* Immanuel Kant: Argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per Thomas Hobbes, but as a moral duty. First modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace.
* Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g. repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds outside the economic sphere.
* Edmund Burke: Irish member of the British parliament, Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French revolution. Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution.
* John Adams: Enlightenment writer who defended the American cause for independence. Adams was a Lockean thinker, who was appalled by the French revolution. Adams is known for his outspoken commentary in favor of the American revolution. He defended the American form of republicanism over the French liberal democracy. Adams is considered the founder of American conservative thought.
* Thomas Paine: Enlightenment writer who defended liberal democracy, the American Revolution, and French Revolution in Common Sense and The Rights of Man.
* Jeremy Bentham: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of aggregate individual benefits. Founded the philosophical/ethical school of thought known as utilitarianism.
* John Stuart Mill: A utilitarian, and the person who named the system; he goes further than Bentham by laying the foundation for liberal democratic thought in general and modern, as opposed to classical, liberalism in particular. Articulated the place of individual liberty in an otherwise utilitarian framework.
* Thomas Hill Green: modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom.
* Karl Marx: In large part, added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and economics. Created the concept of ideology in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions. Analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of governance and social interaction.
* Giovanni Gentile: Known as the 'Philosopher of Fascism' and ghostwrote the Doctrine of Fascism with Benito Mussolini and argued that the Fascist State is an ethical and educational state and that the individual should put the interests of the State first.
* John Dewey: Co-founder of pragmatism and analyzed the essential role of education in the maintenance of democratic government.
* Antonio Gramsci: Instigated the concepts hegemony and social formation. Fused the ideas of Marx, Engels, Spinoza and others within the so-called dominant ideology thesis (the ruling ideas of society are the ideas of its rulers).
* Herbert Marcuse: One of the principal thinkers within the Frankfurt School, and generally important in efforts to fuse the thought of Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx. Introduced the concept of repressive desublimation, in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire. Analyzed the role of advertising and propaganda in societal consensus.
* Friedrich Hayek: He argued that central planning was inefficient because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers and workers with existing conditions. Hayek further argued that central economic planning - a mainstay of socialism - would lead to a "total' state with dangerous power. He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law.
* Hannah Arendt: Analyzed the roots of totalitarianism and introduced the concept of the "banality of evil" (how ordinary technocratic rationality comes to deplorable fruition). Brought distinctive elements of and revisions to the philosophy of Martin Heidegger into political thought.
* Georg Hegel: Emphasized history and continuity, influenced Marx and Oakeschott.
* Isaiah Berlin: Developed the distinction between positive and negative liberty
* Leo Strauss: Strauss is known for his writings on the classical and modern philosophers and for denouncing modern politics.
* John Rawls: Revitalised the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American universities with his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, which uses a version of social contract theory to answer fundamental questions about justice and to criticise utilitarianism.
* Robert Nozick: Criticized Rawls, and argued for libertarianism, by appeal to a hypothetical history of the state and the real history of property.
* Michael Oakeshott: Provided a conservative philosophy anchored in history and Hegelianism.

Some notable contemporary political philosophers are Amy Gutmann, Seyla Benhabib, G.A. Cohen, George Kateb, Wendy Brown, Stephen Macedo, Martha Nussbaum, Ronald Dworkin, Thomas Pogge, Will Kymlicka, Charles Taylor, Philippe Van Parijs and Michael Walzer.

See also

* Anarchist schools of thought
* Consensus decision making
* Consequentialist justifications of the state
* The justification of the state
* Majoritarianism
* Panarchism
* Progressivism
* Political media
* Social criticism

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Tema trascendente:La FILOSOFÍA POLÍTICA,base del PENSAMIENTO POLÍTICO!

La filosofía política es una rama de la filosofía que estudia cuestiones fundamentales acerca del gobierno, la política, la libertad, la justicia, la propiedad, los derechos y la aplicación de un código legal por la autoridad: qué son, por qué (o incluso si) son necesarios, qué hace a un gobierno legítimo, qué derechos y libertades debe proteger y por qué, qué forma debe adoptar y por qué, qué obligaciones tienen los ciudadanos para con un gobierno legítimo (si acaso alguna), y cuándo pueden derrocarlo legítimamente (si alguna vez).
En un sentido vernacular, el término "filosofía política" a menudo se refiere a una perspectiva general, o a una ética, creencia o actitud específica, sobre la política que no necesariamente debe pertenecer a la disciplina técnica de la filosofía.

Los fundamentos de la filosofía política han variado a través de la historia. Así para los griegos la ciudad era el centro y fin de toda actividad política.
En el Medioevo europeo casi todo pensamiento político se centra en las relaciones que debe mantener el ser humano con el orden metafísico dado por Dios.
A partir del Renacimiento la política adopta un enfoque básicamente antropocéntrico.
Los principales autores que han desarrollado los contenidos de la Filosofía Política han sido Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Alexis Tocqueville, William Edward Burghardt Du Bois, Karl Marx, los autores de la llamada Escuela de Frankfurt como Habermas, Adorno,Marcuse; los filosofos anglosajones como Ronald Dworkin, John Rawls o Cass Sunstein, John Elster o Cohen y los estructuralistas como Michel Foucault o Althusser entre muchos otros pensadores y pensadoras.

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Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~

Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government. Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the study of the economies of states—polities, hence political economy.

In late nineteenth century, the term "political economy" was generally replaced by the term economics, used by those seeking to place the study of economy upon mathematical and axiomatic bases, rather than the structural relationships of production and consumption (cf. marginalism, Alfred Marshall).

* 1 History of the term
* 2 -Originally, political economy meant the study of the conditions under which production or consumption within limited parameters was organized in the nation-states.
The phrase économie politique (translated in English as political economy) first appeared in France in 1615 with the well known book by Antoine de Montchrétien: Traité de l’economie politique.
French physiocrats, Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Marx were some of the exponents of political economy.
In 1805, Thomas Malthus became England's first professor of political economy, at the East India Company College, Haileybury, Hertfordshire.
The world's first professorship in political economy was established in 1763 at the University of Vienna, Austria; Joseph von Sonnenfels was the first tenured professor.

In the United States, political economy first was taught at the College of William and Mary; in 1784 Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations was a required textbook.[1]

Glasgow University, where Smith was Professor of Logic and Moral Philosophy, changed the name of its Department of Political Economy to the Department of Economics (ostensibly to avoid confusing prospective undergraduates) in academic year 1797–1798, leaving the graduating class of 1798 as the last to be graduated with a Scottish Master of Arts degree in Political Economy.

--------- Current approaches to political economy

Contemporarily, political economy refers to different, but related, approaches to studying economic and political behaviours, ranging from the combining of economics with other fields, to the using of different, fundamental assumptions that challenge orthodox economic assumptions:

* Political economy most commonly refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics, law, and political science in explaining how political institutions, the political environment, and the economic system—capitalist, socialist, mixed—influence each other. When narrowly construed, it refers to applied topics in economics implicating public policy, such as monopoly, market protection, government fiscal policy,[2] and rent seeking.[3]
* Historians have employed political economy to explore the ways in the past that persons and groups with common economic interests have used politics to effect changes beneficial to their interests.[4]
* "International political economy" (IPE) is an interdisciplinary field comprising approaches to international trade and finance, and state policies affecting international trade, i.e. monetary and fiscal policies. In the U.S., these approaches are associated with the journal International Organization, which, in the 1970s, became the leading journal of international political economy under the editorship of Robert Keohane, Peter J. Katzenstein, and Stephen Krasner. They are also associated with the journal The Review of International Political Economy. There also is a more critical school of IPE, inspired by Karl Polanyi's work; two major figures are Susan Strange and Robert W. Cox.[5]
* Economists and political scientists often associate the term with approaches using rational choice assumptions, especially game theory, in explaining phenomena beyond economics' standard remit, in which context the term "positive political economy" is common.[6]
* Anthropologists, sociologists, and geographers, use political economy in referring to the neo-Marxian approaches to development and underdevelopment postulated by André Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein.
* Contemporary political economy students treat economic ideologies as the phenomenon to explain, per the traditions of Marxian political economy. Thus, Charles S. Maier suggests that a political economy approach: interrogates economic doctrines to disclose their sociological and political premises....in sum, [it] regards economic ideas and behavior not as frameworks for analysis, but as beliefs and actions that must themselves be explained.[7] This approach informs Andrew Gamble's The Free Economy and the Strong State (Palgrave Macmillan, 1988), and Colin Hay's The Political Economy of New Labour (Manchester University Press, 1999). It also informs much work published in New Political Economy an international journal founded by Sheffield University scholars in 1996.[8]

---------- Disciplines related to political economy

Because political economy is not a unified discipline, there are studies using the term that overlap in subject matter, but have radically different perspectives:

* Sociology studies the effects of persons' involvement in society as members of groups, and how that changes their ability to function. Many sociologists start from a perspective of production-determining relation from Karl Marx.
* Political Science focuses on the interaction between institutions and human behavior, the way in which the former shapes choices and how the latter change institutional frameworks. Along with economics, it has made the best works in the field by authors like Shepsle, Ostrom, Ordeshook, among others.
* Anthropology studies political economy by studying the relationship between the world capitalist system and local cultures.
* Psychology is the fulcrum on which political economy exerts its force in studying decision-making (not only in prices), but as the field of study whose assumptions model political economy.
* History documents change, using it to argue political economy; historical works have political economy as the narrative's frame.
* Economics focuses on markets by leaving the political—governments, states, legal frameworks—as givens. Economics dropped the adjective political in the 19th century, but works backwards, by describing "The Ideal Market", urging governments to formulate policy and law to approach said ideal. Economists and political economists often disagree on what is preeminent in developing production, market, and political structure theories.
* Law concerns the creation of policy and its mediation via political actions that have specific results, it deals with political economy as political capital and as social infrastructure—and the sociological results of one society upon another.
* Human Geography is concerned with politico-economic processes, emphasizing space and environment.
* Ecology deals with political economy, because human activity has the greatest effect upon the environment, its central concern being the environment's suitability for human activity. The ecological effects of economic activity spur research upon changing market economy incentives.
* International Relations often uses political economy to study political and economic development.
* Cultural Studies studies social class, production, labor, race, gender, and sex.
* Communications examines the institutional aspects of media and telecommuncation systems, with particular attention to the historical relationships between owners, labor, consumers, advertisers, and the state.