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Dreams are a series of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations occurring involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep.[1]
The content and purpose of dreams are not fully understood, though they have been a topic of speculation and interest throughout recorded history. The scientific study of dreams is known as oneirology.
Cultural history
Dreams have a long history, both as a subject of conjecture and as a source of inspiration.
Throughout history, people have sought meaning in dreams or divination through dreams.
They have been described physiologically as a response to neural processes during sleep, psychologically as reflections of the subconscious, and spiritually as messages from God or predictions of the future.
Many cultures have practiced dream incubation, with the intention of cultivating dreams that were prophetic or contained messages from the divine.
Judaism has a traditional ceremony called "hatavat halom" – literally meaning making the dream a good one. Through this rite disturbing dreams can be transformed to give a positive interpretation by a rabbi or a rabbinic court. [2]
Neurology of sleep and dreams
REM sleep
There is no universally agreed biological definition of dreaming. In 1952 Eugene Aserinsky discovered REM sleep while working in the surgery of his PhD advisor. Aserinsky noticed that the sleepers' eyes fluttered beneath their closed eyelids, later using a polygraph machine to record their brain ~~~es during these periods. In one session he awakened a subject who was wailing and crying out during REM and confirmed his suspicion that dreaming was occurring.[3] In 1953 Aserinsky and his advisor published the ground-breaking study in Science.[4]
Accumulated observation shows that dreams are strongly associated with rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, during which an electroencephalogram shows brain activity to be most like wakefulness. Participant-nonremembered dreams during non-REM sleep are normally more mundane in comparison.[5] During a typical lifespan, a human spends a total of about six years dreaming[6] (which is about two hours each night[7]). Most dreams last only 5 to 20 minutes.[6] It is unknown where in the brain dreams originate, if there is a single origin for dreams or if multiple portions of the brain are involved, or what the purpose of dreaming is for the body or mind.
During REM sleep, the release of certain neurotransmitters is completely suppressed. As a result, motor neurons are not stimulated, a condition known as REM atonia. This prevents dreams from resulting in dangerous movements of the body.
Animals have complex dreams and are able to retain and recall long sequences of events while they are asleep[8]. Studies show that various species of mammals and birds experience REM during sleep[9], and follow the same series of sleeping states as humans[10].
Despite their power to bewilder, frighten us or amuse us, dreams are often ignored in mainstream models of cognitive psychology.[11] As methods of introspection were replaced with more self-consciously perceptive methods in the social sciences in 1930s and 1940s, dream studies dropped out of the scientific literature. Dreams were neither directly observable by an experimenter nor were subjects’ dream reports reliable, being prey to the familiar problems of distortion due to delayed recall, if they were recalled at all. More often dreams are, of course, forgotten entirely, perhaps due to their (according to Freud) prohibited character. Altogether these problems seemed to put them beyond the realm of science.
The discovery that dreams take place primarily during a distinctive electrophysiological state of sleep, Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, which can be identified by perceptive criteria, led to rebirth of interest in this phenomenon. When REM sleep episodes were timed for their duration and subjects woken to make reports before major editing or forgetting could take place, it was determined that subjects accurately matched the length of time they judged the sleep the dream narrative to be ongoing to the length of REM sleep that preceded the awakening.
This close correlation of REM sleep and dream experience was the basis of first series of reports describing the nature of dreaming: that it is regular nightly, rather than occasional, phenomenon, and a high-frequency activity within each sleep period occurring at predictable intervals of approximately every 60-90 minutes in all humans throughout the life span. REM sleep episodes and the dreams that accompany them lengthen progressively across the night, with the first episode being shortest, of approximately 10–12 minutes duration, and the second and third episodes increasing to 15–20 minutes.
Dreams at the end of the night may last as long as 15 minutes, although these may be experienced as several distinct stories due to momentary arousals interrupting sleep as the night ends. Dream reports can be reported from normal subjects on 50% of the occasion when an awakening is made prior to the end of the first REM period.
This rate of retrieval is increased to about 99% when awakenings are made from the last REM period of the night. This increase in the ability to recall appears to be related to intensification across the night in the vividness of dream imagery, colors and emotions. The dream story itself in the last REM period is farthest from reality, containing more bizarre elements, and it is these properties, coupled with the increased likelihood of spontaneous arousals allowing waking review to take place, that heighten the chance of recall of the last dream.
El sueño, en cuanto acto de dormir, es un estado de reposo uniforme de un organismo.
En contraposición con el estado de vigilia -cuando el ser está despierto-, el sueño se caracteriza por los bajos niveles de actividad fisiológica (presión sanguÃnea, respiración, latidos del corazón) y por una respuesta menor ante estÃmulos externos.
El descubrimiento de Dement reveló que aquellas personas a las que se despertaba durante el sueño MOR manifestaban claros indicios de trastorno psÃquico y recordaban haber soñado.
En función de estos hechos, comenzaron a surgir teorÃas que suponen el inicio de un estudio cientÃfico de los sueños y su función biológica y psicológica.
Etapas del sueño
Los estados y las fases del sueño humano se definen según los patrones caracterÃsticos que se observan mediante el electroencefalograma (EEG), el electrooculograma (EOG, una medición de los movimientos oculares) y el electromiograma de superficie (EMG).
El registro de estos parámetros electrofisiológicos para definir los estados de sueño y de vigilia se denomina polisomnografÃa.
Estos perfiles entregan dos estados del sueño:
Para el psicoanálisis es importante distinguir en los sueños el contenido manifiesto y el contenido latente.
El contenido manifiesto de los sueños es la historia o sucesos tal como el soñante los vive, es un material elaborado a partir de las experiencias cotidianas y los deseos reprimidos mediante los distintos procesos de elaboración onÃrica. El contenido manifiesto no se encuentra en el nivel del significado, sino del sÃmbolo.
El contenido latente es el significado verdadero del sueño, el psicoanalista se esfuerza por interpretar el contenido manifiesto del sueño que el paciente le relata, para revelar el contenido latente, su significado.
Función psicológica y biológica de los sueños/ensueños.
Función psicológica y biológica de los sueños
El modelo de sistema nervioso que formuló Sigmund Freud está plasmado en su artÃculo «Proyecto Para una PsicologÃa CientÃfica», de 1895, aunque publicado en 1954. Es un aspecto relevante que un artÃculo tan importante para una teorÃa sobre el entendimiento humano no haya sido publicado en los albores mismos de las hipótesis freudianas.
Freud suscribÃa la creencia de que el cerebro puede explicarse a partir, pero no sólo a partir de, su estructura fÃsica, por lo que manifestaba, contrariamente a como suele creerse, una postura propensa al fisicalismo. CaracterÃsticamente, las hipótesis de Freud tras la interpretación de los sueños se infieren de estos supuestos. Consideraba a las neuronas unidades diferenciadas que, cuales recipientes de descarga de energÃa provenientes del sistema nervioso, propiciaban los impulsos y deseos descargados mediante una realización consciente. Conjeturó, entonces, que aquellos impulsos no descargados adecuadamente, eran sobrellevados inconscientemente en los sueños.
La hipótesis de que el sueño participa en la consolidación de la memoria reciente ha sido investigada mediante cuatro paradigmas:
1. Efectos de la privación del sueño sobre la consolidación de recuerdos;
2. Efectos del aprendizaje sobre el sueño post-entrenamiento;
3. Efectos de la estimulación durante el sueño sobre los patrones de sueño y sobre la memoria, y
4. Re-expresión de los patrones de comportamiento especÃfico neuronal durante el sueño post-entrenamiento.
Estos estudios confirman convincentemente la idea de que el sueño está profundamente implicado en las funciones de la memoria en humanos y animales. Sin embargo, los datos disponibles aún son demasiado escasos para confirmar o rechazar inequÃvocamente la hipótesis recientemente expuesta de que la consolidación de memorias no-declarativa y declarativa respectivamente dependan de los procesos de sueño MOR y NMOR.
Otros estudios más recientes comparan el proceso de ordenamiento de la memoria durante el sueño con el proceso de defragmentación de la memoria de las computadoras, ambos persiguiendo un mismo objetivo de mantenimiento y economÃa de recursos, preparandonos para una mejor disponibilidad operativa de la memoria durante los momentos de mayor utilidad, como el estar despierto o en actividad.
La privación del sueño aumenta la eficiencia del sueño
Por eficiencia del sueño se entiende el tiempo que un sujeto pasa en sueño verdadero durante el tiempo que se dedica a dormir.
Uno de los descubrimientos más importantes de la investigación sobre la privación de sueño es que las personas que están privadas de sueño se convierten en durmientes con un sueño más eficiente. Concretamente, en su sueño hay una proporción más alta de ondas lentas (fases 3 y 4), lo que parece servir a la principal función de recuperación.
La mayorÃa de los fármacos que influyen en el sueño pueden clasificarse en una de dos categorÃas diferentes:
* Hipnóticos: aumentan la cantidad de sueño.
* Antihipnóticos: disminuyen la cantidad de sueño.
Hay una tercera categorÃa que cabrÃa introducir, la de los fármacos que influyen sobre la ritmicidad circardiana, siendo el principal fármaco la melatonina.
Re: ~~Juguemos Bilingüe~~Be good,lern about Ethics
Ethics (also known as moral philosophy) is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is (meta-ethics), how moral values should be determined (normative ethics), how a moral outcome can be achieved in specific situations (applied ethics), how moral capacity or moral agency develops and what its nature is (moral psychology), and what moral values people actually abide by (descriptive ethics).
Meta-ethics
Meta-ethics is concerned primarily with the meaning of ethical judgments and/or prescriptions and with the notion of which properties, if any, are responsible for the truth or validity thereof.
Meta-ethics as a discipline gained attention with G.E. Moore's famous work Principia Ethica from 1903 in which Moore first addressed what he referred to as the naturalistic fallacy. Moore's rebuttal of naturalistic ethics, his Open Question Argument sparked an interest within the analytic branch of western philosophy to concern oneself with second order questions about ethics; specifically the semantics, epistemology and ontology of ethics.
Correspondingly, the epistemology of ethics divides into cognitivism and non-cognitivism; a distinction that is often perceived as equivalent to that between descriptivists and non-descriptivists. Non-cognitivism may be understood as the claim that ethical claims reach beyond the scope of human cognition or as the (weaker) claim that ethics is concerned with action rather than with knowledge. Cognitivism can then be seen as the claim that ethics is essentially concerned with judgments of the same kind as knowledge judgments; namely about matters of fact.
The ontology of ethics is concerned with the idea of value-bearing properties, i.e. the kind of things or stuffs that would correspond to or be referred to by ethical propositions. Non-descriptivists and non-cognitivists will generally tend to argue that ethics do not require a specific ontology, since ethical propositions do not refer to ~~~~~~s in the same way that descriptive propositions do. Such a position may sometimes be called anti-realist. Realists on the other hand are left with having to explain what kind of entities, properties or states are relevant for ethics, and why they have the normative status characteristic of ethics.
Normative ethics
Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle to which one could appeal in resolving difficult moral decisions.
At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism.
In 1971, John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.
Greek philosophy
Socrates
Socrates was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of man. In this view, Knowledge having a bearing on human life was placed highest, all other knowledge being secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within their capabilities to their pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions, are the result of ignorance. If a criminal were truly aware of the mental and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing them. [1]
Aristotle
Aristotle posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realisationism." In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with his nature and realises his full potential, he will do good and be content. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. In order to become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realised. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealised potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Aristotle said, "Nature does nothing in vain." Therefore, it is imperative for persons to act in accordance with their nature and develop their latent talents, in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealth, are merely means to the end. Self-realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.[2]
Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable (physical), animal (emotional) and rational (mental). Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by moderate virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.[3]
Hedonism
Hedonism posits that the principle ethic is maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. There are several schools of Hedonist thought ranging from those advocating the indulgence of even momentary desires to those teaching a pursuit of spiritual bliss. In their consideration of consequences, they range from those advocating self-gratification regardless of the pain and expense to others, to those stating that the most ethical pursuit maximizes pleasure and happiness for the most people.[4]
Epicureanism
Epicurus rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. Epicureans observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future. The summum bonum, or greatest good, to Epicurus was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain. For example, eating one food too often will cause a person to lose taste for it. Eating too much food at once will lead to discomfort and ill-health. Pain and fear were to be avoided. Living was essentially good, barring pain and illness. Death was not to be feared. Fear was considered the source of most unhappiness. Conquering the fear of death would naturally lead to a happier life. Epicurus reasoned if there was an afterlife and immortality, the fear of death was irrational. If there was no life after death, then the person would not be alive to suffer, fear or worry; he would be non-existent in death. It is irrational to fret over circumstances that do not exist, such as one's state in death in the absence of an afterlife.[5]
Stoicism
The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or Apatheia, was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God (who initially gave what the person is as a person). Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud.[6]
En entrevista con UNO TV, el comisionado explicó que el lÃquido llega al sistema de recolección y de ahà pasa directamente al drenaje profundo, por lo que propuso implementar mecanismos que permitan recolectar la lluvia, lo que podrÃa beneficiar a los cerca de 20 millones de habitantes de la capital.
Es el fin de la vida, opuesto al nacimiento. El evento de la muerte es la culminación de la vida de un organismo vivo. Sinónimos de muerto son occiso (muerto violentamente) y difunto.
Se suele decir que una de las caracterÃsticas clave de la muerte es que es definitiva, y en efecto, los cientÃficos no han sido capaces hasta ahora de presenciar la recomposición del proceso homeostático desde un punto termodinámicamente recuperable.
Consecuencias psicológicas, muerte humana
Definiciones y significados emotivos
El tipo de muerte más importante para el ser humano es sin duda la muerte humana.
Conocer con certeza el instante de una muerte sirve, entre otras cosas, para asegurar que el testamento del difunto será únicamente aplicado tras su muerte y, en general, conocer cuándo se debe actuar bajo las condiciones establecidas ante una persona difunta.
Medicina forense
En particular, identificar el momento exacto de la muerte es importante en casos de trasplante, ya que los órganos deben ser retirados del cuerpo lo más pronto posible tras la muerte.
Históricamente los intentos por definir el momento preciso de la muerte han sido problemáticos. Antiguamente se definÃa la muerte (evento) como el momento en que cesan los latidos del corazón y la respiración, pero el desarrollo de la ciencia ha permitido establecer que realmente la muerte es un proceso, el cual en un determinado momento, se torna irreversible.
Hoy en dÃa, cuando es precisa una definición del momento de la muerte, se considera que este corresponde al momento en que se produce la irreversibilidad de este proceso. Existen en medicina protocolos clÃnicos que permiten establecer con certeza el momento de la muerte, es decir, que se ha cumplido una condición suficiente y necesaria para la irreversibilidad del proceso de muerte.
* Gregory, Richard (2002). Illusión: Making Sense of the Senses. Oxford University Press.
* Ledoux, Joseph (2003). Synaptic Self, How Our Brains Become Who We Are. Penguin.
* DÃa de Muertos
* EscatologÃa cristiana
* La muerte (libro)
* Moiras
* Personificación de la Muerte
* Santa Muerte
* Ser vivo
* Suicidio
* Sokushinbutsu
En este tranquilo lugar,una de las regiones habitadas más altas del paÃs,se aprecian inumerables manifestaciones artÃsticas y culturales en los callejones de un antiguo pueblo minero rodeado de de bosques...
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