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En el sentido anterior la imaginación tiene semejanza con el proceso de percibir. No obstante, la primera no se limita a la segunda.
La imaginación es un proceso más abstracto, esto es, que no necesita de un objeto presente en la realidad, ella se sirve de la memoria para manipular la información y relacionarla de formas que no dependen del estado actual del organismo...Al imaginar se representa idealmente una cosa;es crearla en la imaginación...
* Drubach, D et al. Imaginación: definicióm, utilidad y neurobiologÃa En: revista de neurologÃa, 2007, 45:353-8.
* Fabiani, Paolo. The philosophy of the imagination in Vico and Malebranche (Florence: Florence University Press, italian edition 2002).
Ciencia y arte de la polÃtica:El ejercicio del poder en los Estados
INTRODUCCIÓN
La ciencia PolÃtica surgió como una forma de pensamiento filosófico que estuvo dentro de otras ciencias y que al transcurrir de las investigaciones le tomaron más importancia y a lo largo del tiempo pasó por diversas etapas y periodos que la fueron fortaleciendo y dando consistencia hasta llegar a ser conocida como una verdadera ciencia autónoma a fines del siglo XIX relacionándose con otras ciencias sociales para una mejor explicación de los fenómenos que estudia.
CONCEPTOS BÃSICOS del arte y ciencia de la polÃtica
Ciencia:Conjunto de conocimientos obtenidos mediante la observación y el razonamiento, sistemáticamente estructurados y de los que se deducen principios y leyes generales.
La Ciencia PolÃtica concibe al Estado como instrumento al servicio de los intereses polÃticos en juego y de las fuerzas polÃticas.
Concepto de Gobierno
Gobernar quiere decir mandar, dirigir, por eso quienes gobiernan mandan y dirigen tomando un conjunto de decisiones que, por su naturaleza, son de carácter público; es decir, recaen sobre la personas que componen una nación y, en algunos casos, sobre la llamada sociedad internacional.
De esta definición podemos deducir que el poder siempre importa un comportamiento arbitrario dentro de una relación de mando-obediencia, una capacidad de imponer criterios y valores a costa de la opinión favorable y adversa de los demás, encuadrada en una actividad humana interrelacionada, dinámica y por ende conflictiva en una sistema polÃtico.
Cuando la capacidad de decisión está respaldada por la fuerza pública y amparada por el Derecho Positivo, el poder se convierte en autoridad y es legÃtimo.
EVOLUCIÓN HISTÓRICA DE LA CIENCIA POLÃTICA
Precursores de la ciencia polÃtica
Los precursores de la Ciencia PolÃtica se ocupaban de la forma de alcanzar y mantener los objetivos ideales de cada gobierno desde la edad antigua hasta el siglo XX... Estos son los precursores de esta ciencia:
1. Platón
2. Aristóteles
3. Marco Tulio Cicerón
4. San AgustÃn de Hipona
5. Santo Tomas de Aquino
6. Nicolás Maquiavelo
7. Thomas Hobbes
8. John Locke
9. Jean Jacques Rousseau
10. Charles Louis de Monstesquieu
11. Inmamuel kant
12. Jeorg Welhelm Friedrich Hegel
13. Johann Gottlub Fichte
14. Alexis de Tocqueville
15. karl Marx
16. Friedrich Engels
17. Friedrich Nietzsche
Algunas Obras + o - Principales
"El PrÃncipe"
Escrito por Maquiavelo en 1532, en donde señala las condiciones que debÃan caracterizar al estadista.
"Leviatán"
Escrita en 1651 por Hobbes, el cual expuso la teorÃa del estado a partir del contrato social.
"Tratado Sobre el Gobierno Civil"
Escrito en 1690,por Locke sobre los conceptos de propiedad y monarquÃa constitucional.
"El EspÃritu de las Leyes"
Montesquieu defendió en sus páginas el principio de la separación de poderes.
"El Contrato Social"
Rousseau en 1762 reviso la cuestión del contrato social argüida por Hobbes y Locke, y defendió la preeminencia de la libertad civil y la voluntad popular, frente al derecho divino de las soberanÃas.
"La Paz Perpetua"
En 1795, Kant concibió un sistema pacifico de relaciones internacionales basadas en la constitución de una federación mundial de republicas.
"Discurso de la Nación Alemana"
En 1808, Fichte inauguro en cierta medida el discurso del nacionalismo contemporáneo.
"Manifiesto Comunista"
En 1848, Marx y Engels abordaron el estudio de la historia a partir del materialismo.
Los intentos son fragmentarios, pero dan lugar a determinadas obras esenciales que la Ciencia PolÃtica actual no puede ignorar; estos intentos los realizan Aristóteles, Platón, Maquiavelo, Bodino y Montesquieu; considerado los grandes de la prehistoria en Ciencia PolÃtica.
Plaróne le considera uno de los primeros filósofos polÃticos es un moralista que emprende la búsqueda del "buen gobierno" y formula la teorÃa de un estado ideal mas bien que una descripción de los estados reales, esta dominado por el concepto de valor y no es objetivo, en este sentido no es cientÃfico.
Maquiaveloe le sitúa en la lÃnea de Aristóteles; cuando escribe su propio libro piensa en PolÃtica...
Jurista de profesión mezcla razonamientos jurÃdicos o jurÃdico metafÃsicos o de observaciones sociológicas; no es el creador de la teorÃa la soberanÃa, pero la desarrolló con mucha fuerza y le dio en ciertos aspectos su forma esencial.
Representa cierto adelanto desde el punto de vista de la Ciencia PolÃtica contemplando y precisando el esquema general del poder descrito por Aristóteles en su cosmogonÃa polÃtica.
Montesquieu:Unos lo reprochan por situarse en la posteridad de Maquiavelo, el describir lo que es y no lo que debe ser; al contrario algunos dicen que Montesquieu era esencialmente un moralista y que "El EspÃritu de las Leyes" es una obra de orientación moral.
Es posible que haya intentado distinguir por primera vez en si mismo entre el ciudadano que se compromete moral y polÃticamente y el observador cientÃfico, que se esfuerza por conseguir la objetividad total. En "El EspÃritu de las Leyes" se pueden separar las actitudes personales y las descripciones que pretenden ser imparciales.
Por esa razón, la perredista sostuvo que para frenar los embarazos no deseados, la base para contrarrestar esa problemática, especialmente en las adolescentes, es la educación y la cultura y con ello lograr la prevención.
"Habrá quienes propongan becas a las madres adolescentes, pero lo importante es pensar en solucionar de fondo el problema", indicó.
Criticó las campañas que en ese tema se vienen realizando en los centros de salud, las cuales, advirtió, "vemos que no están funcionando".
"Creemos que la base para contrarrestar los embarazos en adolescentes es la prevención; sabemos que existen campañas en los centros de salud, hay información de cómo utilizar el condón, cómo prevenir enfermedades de transmisión sexual, pero vemos que no están funcionando", puntualizó la perredista.
Agregó que se deben generar polÃticas, programas y campañas de prevención hacia los jóvenes, población que en este momento es la más numerosa, para que se permita, más que brindar información, hacer que reflexionen sobre su proyecto de vida.
"Se les debe informar a los jóvenes que a su edad es más importante estudiar que tomar ese tipo de decisiones, por lo que se debe trabajar más para que sean más responsables de sus actitudes y en su toma de decisiones", enfatizó.
Rojas MartÃnez señaló que a partir de los trabajos que surgieron en conferencias por el DÃa Internacional de la Mujer, las estadÃsticas de embarazos en adolescentes le llamaron la atención y, por ello, adquirió el compromiso de implementar acciones que ayuden a los jóvenes a actuar responsablemente.
"Las adolescentes embarazadas dejan la escuela; habrá quienes propongan becas a esas jóvenes madres, pero lo importante es pensar en el fondo del problema y lo mejor es prevenir".
Ante esa situación, la representante popular en Gustavo A. Madero exhortó a las jóvenes a estar concientes y desarrollarse como personas responsables y profesionistas. "Si no hay conciencia de eso, difÃcilmente se detendrán los embarazos", apuntó.
Re: La Clase PolÃtica Mexicana,la'lucha de clases' y la Partidocracia ! ! !
La'clase polÃtica mexicana'explota a todas las demás clases...
Eso es parte de'la lucha de clases'en Mx..
La'partidocracia'es parte esencial del orden polÃtico que facilita todo esto..
El titular de la SFP, Salvador Vega, informó en rueda de prensa que la denunciada es Maria Karen Miyasaki Hara, subdirectora comercial de Destilados Intermedios de PMI Comercio Internacional, una filial de la paraestatal Pemex, quien afronta además un proceso administrativo por el que fue suspendida de su cargo público como medida de precaución.
Según el secretario de la Función Pública, la acusada compró y vendió cargamentos de diesel de ultra bajo azufre "con aparente beneficio económico para empresas extranjeras, en perjuicio de PMI".
Tras un año de investigaciones, la SFP afirma que tiene confirmados y documentados cuatro cargamentos comercializados de la misma forma, en los que se presume que la acusada actuó sola.
Una de las empresas involucradas en estos presuntos delitos es Blue Oil Trading, compañÃa constituida en 2007 por el esposo de Miyasaki.
La subdirectora, según la acusación, adquirió 329.000 barriles de diesel a la japonesa Idemitsu Kosan por 27,6 millones de dólares en el puerto de Chiba (Japón), pero lo vendió en el mismo lugar a la empresa Blue Oil Trading por 28 millones de dólares.
Solo en esa operación el perjuicio económico para Pemex está calculado en 4,5 millones de dólares, descontando una serie de gastos asociado, agregó.
Adicionalmente, las autoridades investigaron los ingresos de Miyasaki, quien posee bienes y cuentas en instituciones financieras que no manifestó en sus declaraciones patrimoniales, y realizó "depósitos bancarios cuyo origen se desconoce", según la acusación.
Vega detalló que la empleada de Pemex, quien entró en la compañÃa en 1997, tiene más de 16 millones de pesos (960.000 euros) en trece cuentas bancarias que no fueron informadas.
Las denuncias penales presentadas ante la ProcuradurÃa General de la República (PGR fiscalÃa) son por los movimientos financieros personales de la funcionaria y de sus dependientes económicos, que no fueron declarados, y por las presuntas operaciones irregulares de compra venta con las que favoreció a empresas privadas.
El secretario del Interior de Estados Unidos, Ken Salazar, ha hecho el anuncio de la indemnización en una rueda de prensa tras reunirse con los directivos de la compañÃa en la sede central de BP en Estados Unidos, ubicada en Houston. Salazar ha expresado su "frustración y rabia" contra la petrolera británica por su incapacidad para contener el vertido dentro de los plazos establecidos, y ha advertido de que el Gobierno estadounidense "la dejará de lado" si se descubre negligencia por su parte a la hora de cerrar el flujo de crudo.
Según Salazar, BP no ha cumplido "fecha lÃmite tras fecha lÃmite" a la hora de sellar el pozo de crudo, a pesar de que se haya comprometido a pagar la cobertura máxima de por costes de limpieza, que son 75 millones de dólares.
El director de gestión de British Petroleum Robert Dudley, por su parte, ha asegurado en una entrevista con la cadena CNN que BP está haciendo todo lo posible para taponar la fuga por la que, según la compañÃa, salen unos 5.000 barriles de petróleo al dÃa, mientras que otros cálculos apuntan a entre 25.000 y 95.000 barriles diarios. No ha dudado en calificar el incidente de "catástrofe".
En la 'edad de HIERRO,y del ACERO',la CALDERERÃA o fabricación metálica!
Se llama caldererÃa a una especialidad profesional de la rama de fabricación metálica que tiene como función principal la construcción de depósitos aptos para el almacenaje y transporte de sólidos en forma de granos o áridos, lÃquidos y gas asà como todo tipo de construcción naval y estructuras metálicas. Muchos de estos depósitos reciben el nombre de silos y cisternas. Ejemplos significativos de construcción en caldererÃa: la Torre Eiffel, el puente colgante de Vizcaya, la estructura que sustenta el Museo Guggenheim Bilbao, etc. Y en construcción naval:buques petroleros, gaseros, etc.
El material más común que se trabaja en caldererÃa es el acero laminado y vigas en diferentes aleaciones,formas y espesores.
En un taller o una industria de caldererÃa es común encontrar la siguiente maquinaria:
* Cizallas para cortar la chapa.
* Prensas de estampar y troquelar chapa.
* Máquinas de rodillos para doblar y conformar la chapa.
* Remachadoras.(En desuso, reemplazadas por la soldadura)
* Máquinas de soldar. De corriente continua y alterna, manuales y automaticas.
* sopletes de corte (acetileno ó propano + oxigeno).
Cuando se trata de construcción de depositos que van a trabajar a altas presiones la calidad del metal que lo compone y las soldaduras que lleve durante su construcción se someten a diversas pruebas, las más habituales; soldaduras y materiales revisados mediante ultrasonidos y rayos X.
El primer gran avance se produjo con el descubrimiento del bronce, fruto de la utilización de mineral de cobre con algo de estaño, entre 3500 a. C. y 2000 a. C., en diferentes regiones del planeta, surgiendo históricamente la denominada Edad de Bronce, que sucede a la prehistórica Edad de Piedra.
Otro hecho importante en la historia fue el descubrimiento del hierro, hacia 1400 a. C. Los hititas fueron uno de los primeros pueblos en utilizarlo para elaborar armas, tales como espadas, y las civilizaciones que todavÃa estaban en la Edad de Bronce, como los egipcios o los aqueos, pagaron caro su atraso tecnológico.
No obstante, en la antigüedad no se sabÃa alcanzar la temperatura necesaria para fundir el hierro, por lo que se obtenÃa un metal impuro que habÃa de ser moldeado a martillazos. Hacia el año 1400 d. C. se empezaron a utilizar los hornos provistos de fuelle, que permiten alcanzar la temperatura de fusión del hierro, unos 1.535 °C.
Henry Bessemer descubrió un modo de producir acero,una aleación del hierro con otros elementos como el carbón,el manganeso,el niquel,el cromo,el vanadio,etc. en grandes cantidades con un coste razonable. Tras numerosos intentos fallidos, dio con un nuevo diseño de horno (el convertidor Thomas-Bessemer) y, a partir de entonces, mejoró la construcción de estructuras en edificios y puentes, pasando el hierro a un segundo plano.
Los elementos metálicos, asà como el resto de elementos, se encuentran ordenados en un sistema denominado tabla periódica. La mayorÃa de elementos en esta tabla son los metales.
Hay todo tipo de metales y aleaciones en uso: metales pesados, metales preciosos, metales ferrosos, metales no ferrosos, etc. y el mercado de metales es muy importante en la economÃa mundial.
Re: el poder(power) de dios vs el poder del dinero/¿Quien manda?
Political power (imperium in Latin) is a type of power held by a group in a society which allows administration of some or all of public resources, including labour, and wealth.
There are many ways to obtain possession of such power.
At the nation-state level political legitimacy for political power is held by the representatives of national sovereignty.
Political powers are not limited to heads of states, however the extent to which a person (such as Joseph Kony, Subcomandante Marcos, or Russell Means) or group such as an insurgency, terrorist group, or multinational corporation possesses such power is related to the amount of societal influence they can wield, formally or informally. In many cases this influence is not contained within a single state and it refers to international power.
Political scientists have frequently defined power as "the ability to influence the behaviour of others" with or without resistance.
For analytical reasons, I.C. MacMillan[1] separates the concepts power
Power is the capacity to restructure actual situations.
—I.C. Macmillan
and influence
Influence is the capacity to control and modify the perceptions of others.
—I.C. Macmillan
One of the most famous references to power comes from the Chinese communist leader Mao Tse Tung who believed that power was primarily obtained by force and fear
Political power grows from the barrel of a gun.
— Mao Tse Tung
* Separation of powers
* Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu claimed that without following a principle of containing and balancing power, the world is constantly at risk.
Separation of power must be in such grade, that any of the branches can operate without excessive limitations from the others; but interdependecy between them must also be in such grade, that one single branch cannot rule out the other's decisions. This is the separation of powers principle.
Division of power
A similar concept, termed "division of power", also consists of differentiated legislative, executive, and judicial powers. However, while separation of powers prohibits one branch from interfering with another, division of power permits such interference. For example, in Indonesia, the President (who wields executive power) can introduce a new bill, but the People's Consultative Assembly (holding legislative power) chooses to either legalize or reject the bill.
The model here is the Checks and balances system introduced in the United States Constitution.
Power projection
This ability is a crucial element of a state's power in international relations. Any state able to direct its military forces outside the limited bounds of its territory might be said to have some level of power projection capability, but the term itself is used most frequently in reference to militaries with a worldwide reach (or at least significantly broader than a state's immediate area).
Even states with sizable hard power assets (such as a large standing army) may only be able to exert limited regional influence so long as they lack the means of effectively projecting their power on a global scale.
Generally, only a select few states are able to overcome the logistical difficulties inherent in the deployment and direction of a modern, mechanized military force.
While traditional measures of power projection typically focus on hard power assets (tanks, soldiers, aircraft, naval vessels, etc.), the developing theory of soft power notes that power projection does not necessarily have to involve the active use of military forces in combat.
Assets for power projection can often serve dual uses, as the deployment of various countries' militaries during the humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake illustrates. The ability of a state to project its forces into an area may serve as an effective diplomatic lever, influencing the decision-making process and acting as a potential deterrent on other states' behavior.
Political science perspectives
Within normative political analysis, there are also various levels of power as described by academics that add depth into the understanding of the notion of power and its political implications.
Robert Dahl, a prominent American political scientist, first ascribed to political power the trait of decision-making as the source and main indicator of power.
Later, two other political scientists, Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, decided that simply ascribing decision-making as the basis of power was too simplistic and they added what they termed a 2nd dimension of power, agenda-setting by elites who worked in the backrooms and away from public scrutiny in order to exert their power upon society.
Lastly, British academic Steven Lukes added a 3rd dimension of power, preference-shaping, which he claimed was another important aspect of normative power in politics which entails theoretical views similar to notions of cultural hegemony. These 3 dimensions of power are today often considered defining aspects of political power by political researchers.
A radical alternative view of the source of political power follows the formula: information plus authority permits the exercise of power.
Political power is intimately related to information. Sir Francis Bacon's statement: "Nam et ipsa scientia potentia est" for knowledge itself is power, assumed authority as given. Many will know that unless someone with authority heeds, there is no political power. The kingmaker is not the king.
It is said democracy is the best method of informing those entrusted with authority. They are best able to use authority without ignorance to maximize political power. Those who exercise authority in ignorance are not powerful, because they do not realize their intentions and have little control over the effects of using their authority.
Post-modernism has debated over how to define political power. Perhaps, the best known definition comes from the late Michel Foucault, whose work in Discipline and Punish (and other writings) conveys a view of power that is organic within society.
This view holds that political power is more subtle and is part of a series of societal controls and 'normalizing' influences through historical institutions and definitions of normal vs. abnormal. Foucault once characterized power as "an action over actions" (une action sur des actions), arguing that power was essentially a relation between several dots, in continuous transformation as in Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophy. His view of power lent credence to the view that power in human society was part of a training process in which everyone, from a prime minister to a homeless person, used power in their own relationships in society.
Jürgen Habermas opposed himself to Foucault's conception of discourse as a battlefield for power relations, arguing that it should be possible to achieve consensus on the fundamentals rules of discourse, in order to establish a transparent and democratic dialogue. Thenceforth, he argued against Foucault and Louis Althusser that power was not immanent to discourse, and that philosophy could be completely distinguished from ideology.
Gad Barzilai has explored and theorized power and law in non-ruling communities and in legal pluralism. He has argued that political power can be comprehended as a transformative and transforming phenomenon at the convergence of relations and interactions between the state, non-ruling communities and forces of globalization. Barzilai has explored that neo-liberal globalization has failed to subdue the nation-state and some of the significant political power is still embedded in state political elite.
References
1. ^ I.C. MacMillan (1978) Strategy Formulation: political concepts, St Paul, MN, West Publishing;
Re: la loca Academia e historia de la PolÃtica/Politcs in fact and theory
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to behavior within civil governments, but politics has been observed in other group interactions, including corporate, academic, and religious institutions.
It consists of "social relations involving authority or power"[1] and refers to the regulation of a political unit,[2] and to the methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy.[3]
The word "Politics" comes from the Greek word Πολιτικά (politika) from politic (adj.), modeled on Aristotle's "affairs of state," the name of his book on governing and governments, which was rendered in English mid-15 century as Latinised "Polettiques." In Latin, this was "politicus" and in French "politique". Thus it became "politics" in Middle English (see the Concise Oxford Dictionary).
* Some History
* The origin and development of government institutions is the most visible subject for the study of Politics and its history.
Primitive societies
Regardless of how civilized the world is, there are still large numbers of people living in the most primitive conditions. The most important of these because they are the most scientifically studied are the "aborigines" of Australia. The scientific study of the aboriginal Australian forms the basis of what is best known of primitive societies in general.
The Totem group was the real social unit of the aboriginal Australian. The Totem is not an Australian word but it is generally accepted to designate the name of an institution which is found everywhere among primitive people. The Totem group is primarily a group of people distinguished by the sign of a natural ~~~~~~, such as an animal or tree, who may not intermarry with one another — this is the first rule of primitive social organization; its origin is lost in antiquity ("Alcheringa") but its ~~~~~~ is certainly to prevent the intermarriage of close relatives. Marriage takes place between men and women of different Totems; the husband belongs to all the women of his wife's totem and the wife belongs to all the men of the husband's totem at the same time that a communal marriage is established between the men and women of the two different Totems - the men and women being of the same generation. This presents a most valuable ~~~~~~ive lesson in social history. There are no unmarried couples; marriage for them is part of the natural order into which they are born.
The ceremonies were kept secret and are directed by a "Birraark" or sorcerer, usually an old man. The candidates are instructed in the history of their Totem and on the power of the Birraark. They were initiated into the mystery of the Totem, usually accompanied by an ordeal such as circumcision and then they were tattooed with a seal of identity that marks them for a given Totem and a given generation in that Totem. In this way is constructed the simple system of relationship of the aboriginal Australian before British colonization. The mother took a predominant role, for descent was almost always reckoned through females. Parent, child, brother and sister were the only recognized relationships. Rudimentary as this system may appear to be, it is widely spread among the Malay Archipelago and prevails widely among primitive peoples everywhere.
The Totem served the purpose of forbidding intermarriage between close relatives and will deal destruction if this rule is not strictly enforced. These are the rudiments of two of the most important factors in human progress: Religion and Law. The rudimentary notion of Law is very specific about what is prohibited or Taboo. Primitive people do not recognize any duties towards strangers unless there is an abundant food supply in a given area. It is a sure sign of progress if the same area is able to maintain an ever larger number of people. In his own milieu, close to nature, the savage outwits the civilized man but both are subject to natural law.
Lewis H. Morgan author of Ancient Society considers the American Indians to be the link between the primitive and patriarchal state of society.[4]
According to legend and the Codex Chimalpopoca, Quetzalcoatl being intoxicated with pulque had incest with his sister Quetzalpetlatl. Upon realizing the act, he declared: "... I've sinned. I'm not fit to rule." He burned his palace, buried his treasures and left forever the beloved city of Tollan, cradle of Toltec civilization.[5]
Patriarchal societies
All patriarchal societies are known by certain characteristic features:
1. Male kinship is prevalent. Men are counted as kin because they are descended from the same male ancestor.
2. Marriage is permanent. It is not until one woman is married to one man that certainty of fatherhood appears in society but it is not a general rule of patriarchal society for polygamy does exist in the earlier stages of social development.
3. Paternal authority is the ruling principle of the social order. In ancient Rome, the patria potestas extended to all descendants of one living male ancestor; it comprised control and punishment not to mention questions of life and death.
These features of the development of the patriarchal state of society are as common among the Jews as among the Arabs, among the Aryans as among the Dravidians and even among the Germanic and Celtic peoples.
The patriarchal state of society consists of two stages, tribe and clan. The tribe is a large group of hundreds of members who descend from one common male ancestor, sometimes from a fictitious character satisfying the etiquette that descent from the male is the only basis of society. The clan, on the other hand, is a smaller group reaching back into the past for only four generations or so to a common well-known male ancestor. The clan always breaks down into smaller units when its limit is reached. According to the Scottish historian W. F. Skene in volumen 3 of Celtic Scotland, the tribe or larger unit is the oldest. When the tribe breaks down, clans are formed. When the clan system breaks down, it leaves the households or families as independent units. Finally, with the withering away of patriarchal society, the family is dissolved and the individual comes into existence.[6]
The state
The origin of the State is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, there is not the slightest difficulty in proving that all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. As a result the new states are forced to organize on military principles. The life of the new community is military allegiance. The military by nature is competitive.
Of the institutions by which the state is ruled, that of kingship stands foremost until the French Revolution put an end to the "divine right of kings". Nevertheless, kingship is perhaps the most successful institution of politics. However, the first kings were not institutions but individuals. The earliest kings were successful militarily. They were men not only of great military genius but also great administrators. Kingship becomes an institution through heredity. However, constitutional monarchies are not successful at all. Elective monarchy is one of the chimeras of political utopia. Chosen by an electorate, the best they become is obedient puppets like the newly elected president of a republic, obedient to whoever would pull the strings behind the scenes.
The king rules his kingdom with the aid of his Council; without it he could not hold his territories. The Council is the king's master mind.
The Council is the germ of constitutional government. Long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by:
1. Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity.
2. Preserving the traditions of the social order.
3. Being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority.
4. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than a single individual such as the king.
The greatest of the king's subordinates, the earls in England and Scotland, the dukes and counts in the Continent, always sat as a right on the Council. A conqueror wages war upon the vanquished for vengeance or for plunder but an established kingdom exacts tribute. One of the functions of the Council is to keep the coffers of the king full. Another is the satisfaction of military service and the establishment of lordships by the king to satisfy the task of collecting taxes and soldiers.[7]
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